Olive oil production in Hellenistic Greece: the interpretation of charred olive remains from the site of Tria Platania,Macedonia, Greece (fourth–second century <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">b.c.</Emphasis>)

The Hellenistic farm site of Tria Platania in Macedonia, Greece, has revealed large quantities of charred olive remains, indicative of olive oil production from the fourth to the second century b.c. There, besides stones (the endocarp), new archaeobotanical elements such as olive pulp and flesh (the mesocarp) and kernels (the seed) were recovered for the first time in the archaeobotanical record in Greece. It is the purpose of this paper to present some of the material recovered from Tria Platania and interpret it in the light of developed model sequences of olive processing. In addition, Olea assemblages from other Greek sites are discussed in which Olea remains have been interpreted in various ways.     

An investigation of processing and consumption of pulses among prehistoric societies: archaeobotanical, experimental and ethnographic evidence from Greece

Pulses have constituted an important food source for prehistoric communities in the Old World, yet little is known as regards their processing for consumption through the archaeobotanical record. This paper provides an overview of archaeobotanical evidence for the use of pulses in prehistoric Greece based on two case studies from the north, and explores (a) their preparation for consumption, in particular their detoxification and (b) the consumption of pulses as a component of ordinary daily meals in prehistoric times, as well as those for special occasions, within a context of feasting and ritual. The paper examines charred remains of Vicia ervilia (bitter vetch) and Lathyrus sativus (grass pea) from early Bronze Age Agios Athanasios and late Neolithic Kremasti Koiladas, respectively, as the former provides a basis for a pilot exploration of pulse detoxification and the latter, due to its origin, offers a rare opportunity to discuss the context of consumption. In the pilot exploration of pulse seed preparation for consumption, the inner cotyledon morphology of modern V. ervilia seeds which were experimentally processed with water and pounding was examined macroscopically and through SEM micrographs. Preliminary observations suggest that intentional splitting of pulse seeds as part of processing for consumption as food may be recognisable in the archaeobotanical record. Processing with water may also be detected. The particular context of the Kremasti finds suggests that pulses, in this particular case L. sativus, may have constituted special foods for particular occasions, loaded with symbolic meaning.     

An experimental approach for tracing olive processing residues in the archaeobotanical record, with preliminary examples from Tell Tweini, Syria

To help the interpretation of possible olive processing residues at archaeological sites, this study examines the changes which occur in pre- and post-charring breakage surfaces of olive stones at tissue level. Fresh olives were experimentally broken before and after charring and heated to different temperatures (230, 330, 430°C) in oxidising and non-oxidising conditions. The structures obtained by the experiment were studied with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and the characteristics for the different temperatures, oxidation regimes and pre- or post-charring fractures were recorded. Furthermore, the experimental specimens were compared with recent and possibly old fractures of several archaeological olive stones from Tell Tweini, Syria. Criteria to infer their formation are discussed. These criteria could be developed further through more experimental replication and additional charring variables, and verified extensively on archaeobotanical assemblages in future studies. The described structures and alterations in the olive stones can be observed using reflected light microscopy, which would allow the proposed approach to be rather easy to apply in practice.     

The agricultural consequences of colonial contacts on the Iberian Peninsula in the first millennium <Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">b</Emphasis>.<Emphasis Type="SmallCaps">c</Emphasis>

The Iron Age archaeobotanical record on the Iberian Peninsula shows how the Phoenician and Greek colonisers caused the indigenous Iberians to change the management of the agricultural resources and the crops which they grew. These colonisers also brought about the development of viticulture and olive cultivation. The importance of agricultural products in the trade network which was stimulated by the colonisers may have encouraged new farming systems, as well as surplus capacity in the native agriculture in the region.     

Luxury food and ornamental plants at the 15th century a.d. Renaissance court of the Este family (Ferrara, northern Italy)

This paper reports the archaeobotanical data from the so-called Vasca Ducale (Ducal Pit), a brick rubbish pit discovered in the basal floor of the ducal palace of Ferrara, Emilia-Romagna, northern Italy. It was in use during the second half of the 15th century a.d. when the rich and powerful Este family inhabited the palace. Therefore, the results help to investigate the eating customs of a Renaissance court. The pit fill largely consisted of zoological remains, especially small bones and shellfish, with mainly waterlogged plant remains and some artefacts. Though the seed/fruit concentration was not high, a long list of taxa was identified of which the largest part belonged to food and ornamental plants. The data suggest that the pit was used for the disposal of dining waste and floor sweepings. The archaeobotanical data are compared with those obtained from other medieval sites in the city, and with two Renaissance sources of documentary evidence, the frescos in the Salone dei Mesi (Room of the months) in Ferrara’s Palazzo Schifanoia, and the cookbook by Cristoforo da Messisbugo, chef at the Este court. The archaeobotanical record of the Vasca Ducale (Ducal Pit) proved to be quite different from the other sites in Ferrara, especially because of the presence of luxury or exotic foods such as, for example, Punica granatum, Prunus armeniaca and Coriandrum sativum.     

Paleobot.org: establishing open-access online reference collections for archaeobotanical research

Difficulty in accessing high quality reference materials has been a limiting factor in the advancement of archaeobotanical research. However, new developments in online open source content management technology and faster downloading capabilities make high quality and low cost dynamic online curation of archaeobotanical reference images increasingly feasible. We describe the establishment of Paleobot.org, an open access online reference collection database for macrobotanical, microbotanical and isotopic data to help standardize and improve the identification of archaeobotanical remains.     

Importance of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhus verniciflua</Emphasis> Stokes (lacquer tree) in prehistoric periods in Japan,deduced from identification of its fossil woods

In Japan, lacquered artifacts and remains of lacquer processing became common items in the early Jomon period beginning at ca. 6300 b.p. (ca. 5300 cal b.c.). However, there was no archaeobotanical evidence that Rhus verniciflua (lacquer tree), which is thought to be a prehistoric introduction from China on botanical grounds, grew in Japan until its distinction in wood structure from those of native Rhus species was clarified in 2004. Based on this new refinement in identification, 573 Rhus fossil woods so far reported from various archaeological sites in Japan were re-identified. The results showed that R. verniciflua commonly grew in middle to northern Honshu since the early Jomon period and that it may have been introduced from China with other cultivated plants before that time. During the Jomon period, R. verniciflua trees were used not just for lacquer collection, but also for building in the lowland which exploited their durability in waterlogged conditions.     

An approach to funerary rituals in the Roman provinces: plant remains from a Gallo-Roman cemetery at Faulquemont (Moselle, France)

Archaeobotanical studies of funerary offerings allow important insights into beliefs in the afterlife and rituals in the past. Although the number of such investigations has increased in recent years, there are still only a very few systematic investigations of Gallo-Roman cremation graves, especially in northern France. The archaeobotanical study presented here concerns the cemetery (necropolis) of Faulquemont, located in the Département of Moselle. 70 cremation graves, dated from the 1st up to the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. have been sampled for the study of the botanical remains. The graveyard belongs to a rural site. The structures, mainly pits, contained secondary deposits of cremations, characterised by ashy fillings, broken archaeological burned material, bones and carbonised plant remains. 18 plant species have been identified including cereals, pulses, tubers and fruits plus bread/pastry. The most important ones were Triticum (hulled wheat), Hordeum (hulled barley), Lens (lentil) and Pisum (pea). There were also more “exotic” finds like Olea (olive), Phoenix (date) and Lupinus (lupin). The preservation of the cereals suggests possible cooking before cremation, or a long exposure to the fire. Some other plants like hazelnut and olive were maybe consumed as a component of funerary meals. In addition, there were also complete fruits burned as funerary offerings. Only the wealthy deceased received luxurious products such as date. Altogether, the spectrum of Faulquemont fits very well with the known picture of plant offerings during Gallo-Roman times. Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available for this article at     

The spread of agriculture in northern Iberia: new archaeobotanical data from El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra)

This paper presents archaeobotanical results from the Neolithic levels (5,300–4,000 b.c.) of two recently excavated sites in northern Iberia: El Mirón cave (Cantabria) and the open-air site of Los Cascajos (Navarra). A cereal grain from El Mirón is currently the earliest domesticated plant remain from this region. Despite the large number of samples examined, plant remains are few. They include basically cereals (Triticum monococcum, T. dicoccum, T. aestivum/durum/turgidum and Hordeum vulgare) and some nuts and fruits (Corylus avellana, Quercus sp., Vitis sp., etc.). The presence of free-threshing wheats at El Mirón opens up an interesting subject for debate, as until now naked wheats have been absent from the early Neolithic archaeobotanical record of the coastal Cantabrian region. Hulled wheat chaff is the main plant component from Los Cascajos, south of the Cantabrian Cordillera in Navarra, indicating waste from processing activities. The association of barley almost exclusively with both a burial and a ritual vase in Los Cascajos could be related specific rituals or ceremonies.     

Experimental approaches to understanding variation in grain size in Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and its relevance for interpreting archaeobotanical assemblages

The dimensions of archaeobotanical grains identified as Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) vary greatly in size. This is illustrated by the remains from the archaeological site of Zanovskoe in eastern Ukraine (5th–1st centuries cal. b.c.). We carried out experimental work on broomcorn millet plants and grains, aiming at a comprehensive understanding of factors that may have contributed to variation in the grain size of broomcorn millet in archaeobotanical assemblages. We analyzed the dependence of grain size variation on selected environmental and taphonomic factors. Our results indicate that immaturity is more likely than environmental stress to account for small grain size in broomcorn millet plants. Depending on charring temperature and time, immature broomcorn millet grains can withstand charring and are potentially preserved in archaeological assemblages. Depending on maturity level, such grains vary in size and shape. These results are potentially important for accurate identification of archaeobotanical specimens.     

Condiments before Claudius: new plant foods at the Late Iron Age oppidum at Silchester,UK

Our understanding of the introduction and adoption of new plant foods in Roman Britain is currently limited by a lack of data from a group of Late Iron Age settlements commonly referred to as oppida (large pre-Roman towns). This paper presents the first evidence of several imported plant foods from Late Iron Age Britain in the form of waterlogged plant remains from the oppidum at Silchester. These were recovered from the basal contexts of two wells, dated to the early first century a.d. One olive stone and several seeds of celery, coriander and dill were identified. The results are compared to archaeobotanical data from elsewhere in Britain and northwestern Europe, demonstrating that Silchester is part of the wider phenomenon of the adoption of new flavourings and fruits in Late Iron Age Europe.     

Flax cultivation and textile production in Neolithic wetland settlements on Lake Constance and in Upper Swabia (south-west Germany)

At present there are substantial amounts of archaeological and archaeobotanical data from the Late Neolithic wetland settlements of southern Germany on the oil and fibre plant flax (Linum usitatissimum L.). This is the result of 30 years of intensive excavations and research in 53 settlement areas. This article, on the one hand, will present the significance of flax remains, products made of flax and the inventory of relevant tools for evidence of and reconstruction of the flax production processes. On the other hand, based on the quantitative analysis of flax remains, the changing significance of this important cultivated plant during the course of the Late Neolithic will be demonstrated. From this it will be evident that textile production and in particular flax processing were part of a decisive upheaval in cultural development that initiated the transition to the middle phase of the Late Neolithic in the fields of agriculture and technology.     

Late Celtic and early Roman plant remains from the oppidum of Bibracte, Mont Beuvray (Burgundy, France)

Two single assemblages of cereals and chaff from the oppidum Bibracte, (Burgundy, France), give evidence of cereal trade, food supply and crop processing in late Celtic and early Roman times. The first deposit consists mainly of Triticum dicoccon chaff which was buried in a wooden box near the sanctuary of La Terrasse. The second assemblage was a store of different wheats and barley excavated in a Roman cellar at the Pature du Couvent. The analyses of these finds are presented, and recent archaeobotanical research at Mont Beuvray is summarized.     

Dating archaeobotanical remains: a cautionary tale from Port au Choix,Newfoundland

In this paper we report on the first ¹⁴C dated archaeological seeds from the island of Newfoundland, Canada. Ninety-three archaeobotanical specimens were recovered from a midden deposit adjacent to a small dwelling at Point Riche (EeBi-20), a large Dorset Palaeoeskimo site near Port au Choix, northwestern Newfoundland. These remains were collected from a seemingly secure context within the midden, but AMS ¹⁴C testing of a sample of specimens produced modern ¹⁴C dates, indicating that the remains are intrusive to the Dorset occupation. While the majority of Newfoundland-based research assumes antiquity of archaeobotanical remains, we recommend using AMS ¹⁴C dating and other proxy data in future archaeobotanical studies to confirm antiquity prior to making interpretations regarding human–plant interactions.     

The archaeobotanical significance of immature millet grains: an experimental case study of Chinese millet crop processing

We present evidence from ethnography and experimental processing of foxtail millet (Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv.) in China that spikelets containing incompletely filled (or immature) grains constitute a significant portion of typical millet harvests and are removed along with other by-products after threshing and winnowing. This study provides a baseline for the identification of immature foxtail grains in archaeobotanical assemblages. Immature millet grains are a frequent component of archaeobotanical assemblages in Neolithic and Bronze Age China, and criteria for their recognition are presented based on our modern experimental result and illustrated with archaeobotanical examples from Shandong and Henan. It is seed morphology rather than size that plays a determinative role in the identification of foxtail millet. It is suggested that those grains with a narrow egg-shaped embryo, which is about 5/6 of the whole grain, and having a round shape can be classed as foxtail millet even though they are small, flat and squashed. While different grades of immaturity in millet grains might be defined, the interpretative potential of these appears to be negligible as all immature grains are concentrated in winnowing waste. This study confirms the suggestion that the ratio of immature to mature millet grains can be employed in archaeobotany in considering whether or not early stage crop processing (threshing and winnowing) contributed to the formation of particular archaeological millet assemblages.     

The occurrence and identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Setaria italica</Emphasis> (L.) P. Beauv. (foxtail millet) grains from the Chengtoushan site (ca. 5800 cal B.P.) in central China,with reference to the domestication centre in Asia

Archaeobotanical remains of Setaria grains and chaff were found at the Chengtoushan site in south-central China (ca. 5800 cal b.p.). Grain shape was determined, using length to breadth ratios, and morphological variation in the upper lemma of modern domesticated and wild Setaria species were examined using scanning electron microscopy as a basis for identifying archaeobotanical remains. Grains of S. viridis, S. yunnanensis, and S.×pycnocoma are slender, whereas S. italica, S. italica var. germinica, S. lutescenes, S. faberi, S. glauca, S. pallidefusca and S. intermedia are round in shape. The papillae distributed on the upper lemma of S. italica are small (8–15 μm) with a non-ridged base, while other Setaria species have large papillae (15–20 μm) with a widely ridged base. The remains of the Setaria from the Neolithic layers at Chengtoushan included S. italica, based on these identification characters. These new finds of foxtail millet are the earliest discoveries from the Yangtze River basin of southern China and are also the earliest evidence for co-cultivation of foxtail millet with rice. The implications of these findings for understanding foxtail millet domestication centres are discussed.     

Roman plant remains from Veli Brijun (island of Brioni), Croatia

41 archaeobotanical samples were analysed, which had been collected from the seabed at uvula Verige (Verige bay) on the island of Veli Brijun, Croatia, the site of a Roman villa which was settled from the 1st to the 5th century A. D. From the analysis of plant macrofos-sils it is evident that the eu-Mediterranean evergreen woodland, today described as Quercion ilicis in the phyto-sociological system, already existed in the Roman period. During this period it became degraded as a result of human activities to other vegetation types such as maquis and garrigue scrub, and grassland. The remains of Vitis vinifera (grapevine), Olea europaea (olive), Ficus carica (fig), and Pinus pinea (stone pine) were most frequently recorded; they all derive from very important and characteristic Mediterranean foods. Prunus avium (sweet cherry) and P. persica (peach), some vegetables and spices were probably cultivated, too, as well as some cereals, most probably Panicum miliaceum (millet). Juglans regia (walnut), Castanea sativa (sweet chestnut), and Corylus avellana (hazel) were possibly cultivated on the island or imported from neighbouring Istia. The records of some fresh water plants show that there was fresh water in uvala Verige and its surroundings in Roman times, much more than today. Received February 29, 2000 / Accepted January 31, 2001     

Finger Millet processing in East Africa

Although archaeobotanical sampling and recovery programmes are a relatively recent implementation in East African archaeology, results from sites where they have been carried out follow a similar trend. This is one of abundant recovery of wood charcoal, but very little in the way of other macroscopic plant remains. Restricted archaeological evidence and ethnographic interviews show the importance of grains, in particular finger millet (Eleusine coracana), for the Bunyoro people of Uganda in pre-colonial times. It has been suggested that one of the possible reasons why finger millet is not being recovered in quantity from archaeological contexts is because the processing of this crop does not involve heating and hence there is not the chance of being deposited in charred form in the archaeological record. Recent ethnographic work on finger millet processing in Uganda shows that it is exposed to heat and potential charring during cleaning and preparation of the grain for either storage or cooking, and this regime is discussed in terms of its activities and products. These findings reinforce the need for archaeobotanists and archaeologists working in this region to look for other possible causes of the scarcity of macroscopic plant remains, and also the importance of considering integrated evidence for agricultural activity on prehistoric sites.     

Grain versus chaff: identifying a contrast between grain-rich and chaff-rich sites in the Neolithic of northern Greece

Recent archaeobotanical investigations of Late Neolithic sites in northern Greece have revealed a pattern as regards the crop parts represented at each site. Some sites appear to be dominated by chaff, mainly glume wheat chaff, while other sites are mainly characterised by cereal grain and pulses. This pattern could be the outcome of various factors: a. pre-depositional differential treatment of crops selecting for one category of plant remains to arrive at the site, b. depositional, therefore related to the type of activity represented at the excavated contexts and the use of space in relation to plants, and c. post-depositional factors such as erosion, or the type of features sampled. These alternative factors are considered in light of the preliminary results of the archaeobotanical investigation of seven Late Neolithic (5500–4000 cal. B.C.) sites from northern Greece. It is suggested that this pattern is the outcome of a differential use of space in relation to plants (storage, processing/food preparation, refuse disposal), probably related to aspects of the socioeconomic organisation of the settlements.