Patterns and perceptions of wildlife crop raiding in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra

Crop raiding can reduce farmers' tolerance towards wildlife. Despite higher human population densities in rural areas, and more rapid conversion of forest to farmland, much less is known about crop raiding in Asia than in Africa. Over 14 months, we identified perceived and actual crop pests, and their patterns of crop raiding from farmland in and around Kerinci Seblat National Park, Sumatra. Farmers named either the wild boar Sus scrofa (80%) or the pig-tailed macaque Macaca nemestrina (20%) as the two most destructive crop pests. From 5125 crop raids by 11 species of mammal, most raids were indeed made by the wild boar (56%) and the pig-tailed macaque (19%). For all species combined, temporal crop raiding peaks were positively correlated with periods of high rainfall. Spatially, most crop raids occurred nearest to the forest edge and the local guarding strategies used were ineffective. However, raids by wild boars were more extensive than raids by pig-tailed macaques, which caused much greater crop damage (73%) than wild boars (26%), contrary to farmers' perceptions. Our research suggests that alternative mitigation strategies need to be trialed over dry and rainy seasons to identify the most effective strategies and that guarding effort should be increased during the rainy seasons and tailored towards specific crop raiding species based on their unique spatial patterns.     

The Human–Macaque Interface: Conservation Implications of Current and Future Overlap and Conflict in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia

Here, I examine overlapping resource use of forest and cultivated resources by villagers and tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia. An integrative research design was employed, using methods from primatology and cultural anthropology, in conjunction with quantitative measurements of cacao crop loss. The results indicate that the current patterns of overlapping resource use may not be severely affecting the tonkean macaques or villagers in Lindu. The research does, however, point to possible future difficulty if cacao crop raiding by macaques increases, and as changing socioeconomic trends and loss of traditional folklore result in further modification of macaque habitat. Successful strategies to ameliorate human–macaque conflict may require efforts aimed at the adoption of alternative buffer zone crops that use shade-management systems, the deliberate protection of important macaque food species, and increasing local tolerance to crop raiding by exploring the role of macaques in forest regeneration.     

Population structure and behaviour of crop-raiding elephants in Kibale National Park, Uganda

We examined patterns of crop raiding by elephants across gender and age classes in relation to elephant life history and sociobiology and estimated the quantitative contribution of crops to elephant diet in Kibale National Park (KNP). Elephant dung‐boli sizes were used to estimate age and sex, while the presence of crop remains in the dung of crop‐raiding elephants was used as evidence of repeated raiding. To estimate the expected proportion of elephants raiding per age class, the age distribution of raiders was compared with the age distribution of all KNP elephants. Elephants raiding crops were predominantly males. They began raiding in expected proportions at 10–14 years while a higher than expected proportion raided crops at 20–24 years. These results suggest that crop raiding is initiated at an age when male elephants leave their families and a large proportion of elephants raid when they are approaching reproductive competition. Evidence from dung of crop raiders, suggests that repeated raiding increases with age. Crop raiders derived 38% of their daily forage from the short time spent raiding, consistent with expectations of foraging theory. Males may be more likely to learn crop raiding because they are socially more independent and experience intense mating competition than females.     

Mitigating crop raiding by forest elephants and baboons at Kibale National Park

In Africa, most protected forests are in densely human-dominated landscapes where human–wildlife conflict is intense. We documented farmer perceptions and responses to crop-raiding wildlife from Kibale National Park, Uganda. Crop raiding was mostly (95%) by baboons (Papio anubis) and elephants (Loxodonta africana). While the financial loss caused by baboons and elephants did not differ, elephants were perceived as more damaging. Guarding and trenches were perceived as the most effective deterrent strategies for baboons and elephants, respectively. Distance from the park boundary and household income were significantly associated with a greater likelihood of crop raiding. Distance from the park, household head age and the species that raided crops, influenced whether a household applied one or more deterrent strategies. Households headed by women or older adults were most vulnerable, experiencing greater losses to raiding. Patterns of human–wildlife conflict around Kibale forest are complex, but the extent of crop damage was mostly determined by distance from the park and farm socio-economic status and thus their ability to mitigate or deter raiding. Managing crop raiding requires collaboration between the park and affected farmers to ensure that mutually managed deterrent methods, such as trenching (elephants) and guarding (baboons), are effectively shared, applied and maintained.     

Gut microbiota composition of Japanese macaques associates with extent of human encroachment

In recent decades, human–wildlife interaction and associated anthropogenic food provisioning has been increasing and becoming more severe due to fast population growth and urban development. Noting the role of the gut microbiome in host physiology like nutrition and health, it is thus essential to understand how human–wildlife interactions and availability of anthropogenic food in habitats can affect an animal's gut microbiome. This study, therefore, set out to examine the gut microbiota of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) with varying accessibility to anthropogenic food and the possibility of using gut microbiota as indicator for macaques’ reliance on anthropogenic food. Using 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing, we described the microbial composition of Japanese macaques experiencing different types of human disturbance and anthropogenic food availability—captive, provisioned, crop‐raiding, and wild. In terms of alpha diversity, our results showed that observed richness of gut microbiota did not differ significantly between disturbance types but among collection sites, whereas Shannon diversity index differed by both disturbance types and sites. In terms of beta diversity, captive populations harbored the most distinctive gut microbial composition, and had the greatest difference compared with wild populations. Whereas for provisioned and crop‐raiding groups, the macaques exhibited intermediate microbiota between wild and captive. We identified several potential bacterial taxa at different taxonomic ranks whose abundance potentially could help in assessing macaques’ accessibility to anthropogenic food. This study revealed the flexibility of the gut microbiome of Japanese macaques and provided possible indices based on the gut microbiome profile in assessing macaques’ accessibility to/reliance on anthropogenic foods.     

Exploring the effects of spatial autocorrelation when identifying key drivers of wildlife crop‐raiding

Few universal trends in spatial patterns of wildlife crop‐raiding have been found. Variations in wildlife ecology and movements, and human spatial use have been identified as causes of this apparent unpredictability. However, varying spatial patterns of spatial autocorrelation (SA) in human–wildlife conflict (HWC) data could also contribute. We explicitly explore the effects of SA on wildlife crop‐raiding data in order to facilitate the design of future HWC studies. We conducted a comparative survey of raided and nonraided fields to determine key drivers of crop‐raiding. Data were subsampled at different spatial scales to select independent raiding data points. The model derived from all data was fitted to subsample data sets. Model parameters from these models were compared to determine the effect of SA. Most methods used to account for SA in data attempt to correct for the change in P‐values; yet, by subsampling data at broader spatial scales, we identified changes in regression estimates. We consequently advocate reporting both model parameters across a range of spatial scales to help biological interpretation. Patterns of SA vary spatially in our crop‐raiding data. Spatial distribution of fields should therefore be considered when choosing the spatial scale for analyses of HWC studies. Robust key drivers of elephant crop‐raiding included raiding history of a field and distance of field to a main elephant pathway. Understanding spatial patterns and determining reliable socio‐ecological drivers of wildlife crop‐raiding is paramount for designing mitigation and land‐use planning strategies to reduce HWC. Spatial patterns of HWC are complex, determined by multiple factors acting at more than one scale; therefore, studies need to be designed with an understanding of the effects of SA. Our methods are accessible to a variety of practitioners to assess the effects of SA, thereby improving the reliability of conservation management actions.     

Use of wild and cultivated foods by chimpanzees at Bossou,Republic of Guinea: feeding dynamics in a human‐influenced environment

Increased human population growth and more conversions of natural habitat to agricultural land have resulted in greater proximity between humans and nonhuman primate species. Consequent increases in resource competition including crop‐raiding are a by‐product of both natural resources becoming less available and the nutritional benefits of cultivated foods becoming more known to the nonhuman primates. Chimpanzees at Bossou in the Republic of Guinea, West Africa, consume 17 different types of cultivated foods that are grown extensively throughout their small, fragmented home range. Direct observations of feeding behavior conducted over an 18‐month period revealed that during specific months crops account for up to one quarter of chimpanzee feeding time, with higher overall crop‐raiding levels throughout the periods of wild fruit scarcity. Some cultivated foods, especially sugar fruits, are mostly fallback foods, whereas others, such as rice pith (Oryza sp.) and maize (Zea mays), are consumed according to their availability even when wild foods are abundant. These findings highlight the importance of both crop choice by farmers and a thorough understanding of the ecology of resident primate species when establishing land management techniques for alleviating human–primate conflict. Am. J. Primatol. 71:636–646, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Foraging dynamics in the group-hunting myrmicine ant,Pheidologeton diversus

Pheidologeton diversus workers group-hunt (that is, search for food in raiding groups) and are in this way remarkably convergent with army ants (Dorylinae and Ecitoninae). Raids appear usually to take independent courses and are capable of tracking areas of high food density. However, raid advance is not dependent on continual food discovery at the raid front, since raids can advance over areas without food. Most raids extend from trunk trails, which originate when the basal trail of a raid remains in use even after the original raid has ceased. Trunk trails can last at least as long as 10 weeks, with the terrain and the distance to the nest influencing the trail stability. Territories are limited to the trail systems, with rich food items in particular being vigorously defended. Group hunting permits P. diversus to quickly harvest booty, usurp foods from competing species, and capture large prey. This strategy is compared with the raiding strategies of other ants. I hypothesize that group hunting originated from an ancestor which hunted solitarily from trunk trails through the acceleration of trail production and reduction in worker autonomy.     

The influence of life history milestones and association networks on crop-raiding behavior in male African elephants

Factors that influence learning and the spread of behavior in wild animal populations are important for understanding species responses to changing environments and for species conservation. In populations of wildlife species that come into conflict with humans by raiding cultivated crops, simple models of exposure of individual animals to crops do not entirely explain the prevalence of crop raiding behavior. We investigated the influence of life history milestones using age and association patterns on the probability of being a crop raider among wild free ranging male African elephants; we focused on males because female elephants are not known to raid crops in our study population. We examined several features of an elephant association network; network density, community structure and association based on age similarity since they are known to influence the spread of behaviors in a population. We found that older males were more likely to be raiders than younger males, that males were more likely to be raiders when their closest associates were also raiders, and that males were more likely to be raiders when their second closest associates were raiders older than them. The male association network had sparse associations, a tendency for individuals similar in age and raiding status to associate, and a strong community structure. However, raiders were randomly distributed between communities. These features of the elephant association network may limit the spread of raiding behavior and likely determine the prevalence of raiding behavior in elephant populations. Our results suggest that social learning has a major influence on the acquisition of raiding behavior in younger males whereas life history factors are important drivers of raiding behavior in older males. Further, both life-history and network patterns may influence the acquisition and spread of complex behaviors in animal populations and provide insight on managing human-wildlife conflict.     

Copulatory behavior in relation to anatomical characteristics of three macaques

Anatomy of copulatory organs and patterns of copulatory behavior were studied in three species of Macaca. The copulatory behavior of the rhesus monkey (M. mulatta) and crab-eating macaque (M. fascicularis) were similar. Mounting time was longer in stump-tailed macaque (M. arctoides) (48 seconds) than in the rhesus monkey or crab-eating macaque (8.5 seconds). Species differences were correlated with anatomical differences in the female and male reproductive organs. In the stump-tailed macaque the male has a relatively long penis, and the female has an elaborate vestibular colliculus in the vestibule. Both rhesus and crab-eating macaques have a short penis, and the female has no vestibular colliculus. Under scanning electron microscope, cone-like projections (3–4 mm) were observed on the surface of the glans and corpus penis of M. arctoides. In M. fascicularis shorter projections (0.05–0.1 mm) were observed on the glans penis but not the corpus penis.     

Sexual behavior in older monkeys,Macaca radiata

This report presents preliminary observational data on the sociosexual behavior of two newly formed groups of older (11.5 to 18.5 years of age, mean age of 15.3 years) bonnet monkeys observed over a period of 18 weeks. Qualitatively, their sexual behavior was similar to that of the younger mature bonnets. The males and females engaged in species-typical proceptive and receptive behavior patterns. The mean duration of copulations was somewhat shorter than that reported for younger mature bonnets. Decreased sexual function was recorded in males that were chronically ill. One male that copulated infrequently died of renal failure in the sixth week of study. Another male that was never observed copulating suffered from fatal diabetes mellitus. One male died apparently during coitus; autopsy findings were compatible with sudden cardiac death. The findings indicate that sexual dysfunction in aged primates can be a sign of serious illness. Sexual and agonistic behaviors for males correlated significantly, a finding reported in studies of rhesus macaques, which are typically a more aggressive macaque subspecies. Low sexual behavior during the first six-week period in Group A was correlated with a high amount of grooming. Possibly, increased grooming by females serves as a reactive behavior under conditions which do not allow sexual outlet.     

Molecular phylogeny of macaques: implications of nucleotide sequences from an 896-base pair region of mitochondrial DNA

We determined the nucleotide sequences of an 896-base pair region of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) from 20 primates representing 13 species of macaques, a baboon, and a patas. We compared these sequences and the homologous sequences from four macaques and a human against each other and deduced the phylogenetic relationships of macaques. The results from the phylogenetic analyses revealed five groups among the macaques: (1) Barbary macaque, (2) two species of Sulawesi macaques, (3) Japanese, rhesus, Taiwanese, crab-eating, and stump-tailed macaques, (4) toque, pig-tailed, and lion-tailed macaques, and (5) Assamese and bonnet macaques. The phylogenetic position of Tibetan macaque remains ambiguous as to whether it belongs to the fourth or fifth group. Phylogenetic trees revealed that Barbary macaque diverged first from the other Asian macaques. Subsequently, the four groups of Asian macaques diverged from one another in a relatively short period of time. Within each group, most of the species diverged in a relatively short period of time following the divergence of the groups. Assuming that the Asian macaques diverged from the outgroup Barbary macaque three million years ago (MYA), the divergence times among groups of Asian macaques were estimated at 2.1-2.5 MYA and within groups at 1.4- 2.2 MYA. The intraspecific nucleotide diversity observed among three rhesus macaques was so large that they did not form a monophyletic cluster in the phylogenetic trees. Instead, one of them formed a cluster with Japanese and Taiwanese macaques, whereas the other two formed a separate cluster. This implies that either polymorphisms of mtDNA sequences that existed before the divergence of these three species (ca. 700,000 years ago) have been retained in rhesus macaques or introgression has occurred among the three species.      

Macaque–human interactions and the societal perceptions of macaques in Singapore

Humans and long‐tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis) interface in several locations in Singapore. We investigated six of these interface zones to assess the level of conflict between the two species. We observed macaque‐to‐human interactions and distributed questionnaires to residents and visitors of nature reserves. We observed an average of two macaque‐to‐human interactions per hour at the sites, which included affiliative or submissive behaviors (46.9%), aggression (19.1%), taking food and other items (18.5%) searching bins, cars, and houses (13.4%), and nonaggressive contact (2.1%). Two‐thirds of interactions occurred when a human was carrying food or food cues, and one‐quarter occurred when a human provoked macaques. Only 8% of interactions occurred without a clear human‐triggered context. Our interview showed one‐third of respondents experienced nuisance problems from macaques. They had items taken from them (50.5%) and received threats (31.9%). Residents reported more nuisance problems than visitors, and their perceptions toward macaques differed. Residents were more aware of the consequences of food provisioning and that there were regulations against feeding. Residents fed macaques less and held more negative sentiments toward macaques. Nearly half of the interviewed people held neutral attitudes toward macaques and only 26.2% of respondents thought conflict with macaques warranted urgent action. Nearly two‐thirds of the respondents supported education programs to ameliorate human–macaque conflict, and less than 15% supported removing or eradicating macaques. 87.6% felt that it is importance to conserve and protect macaques. Our results show that human–macaque conflict exists in Singapore, but that it may not be severe. Human behavior is largely responsible for macaque‐to‐human interactions, and thus could be lessened with management of human behavior in interface zones (i.e. restrict food carrying and provocation). Moreover, our interviews shows people living in Singapore value macaques, do not wish them entirely removed, prefer education‐based solutions, and consider conservation and protection of them important. Am. J. Primatol. 71:825–839, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Positional behavior of free-ranging Japanese macaques (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Macaca fuscata</Emphasis>)

Positional behavior was quantitatively studied in identified free-ranging Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Five male and 11 female adults were observed in a forested mountain habitat. Data were analyzed for proportion of bout distance, number and time of each locomotion and postural type. Japanese macaques are semiterrestrial, and mainly walk and run quadrupedally. This supports the notion that Macaca are generally quadrupeds. Sex differences in positional behavior were found in the preference of substrate and types of positional behavior. Males and females tend to be terrestrial and arboreal, respectively. Males leap more frequently and longer in distance than do females when they are feeding in trees. These sex differences are considered to be related to differences in morphology, food choice, social activity, and the nursing of infants. Frequencies of leaping and the distance covered by leaping in Japanese macaques are more than those of long-tailed macaques which are arboreal quadrupeds. However, Japanese macaques leap shorter distances at a time than do long-tailed macaques, which indicates that body size may be related to leaping distance more than the frequency of leaping and the distance covered by leaping. Japanese macaques are not as specialized for terrestrial locomotion as pig-tailed macaques. They use both terrestrial and arboreal supports, and are considered to be semi-terrestrial quadrupeds, somewhere between the arboreal long-tailed macaque and the terrestrial pig-tailed macaque. Electronic Publication     

Spatial Variation in Army Ant Swarm Raiding and its Potential Effect on Biodiversity

Invertebrate communities of the tropical rain forest floor are highly diverse, characterized by patchy species distribution patterns and high variation in species density. Spatial variation in the foraging activity of swarm raiding army ants, prime invertebrate predators in tropical rain forests, is discussed as a mechanism contributing to these patterns, but highly resolved long‐term data on army ant raiding on the local and landscape scale are hitherto lacking. In this study, 196 positions in 11 study sites in a tropical rain forest in western Kenya were continuously monitored over ~4 mo for the occurrence of swarm raids of army ants. Using population simulation analyses, the consequences of army ant raiding for prey communities were assessed. We found an unexpectedly high variation in raid rates at the study site and landscape scale. The weekly chance of communities to become raided by army ants was on average 0.11, but ranged from 0 to 0.50 among the 196 positions. Simulating population developments of two Lotka–Volterra species—showing slight trade‐offs between competitive strength and resistance to army ant raids—in the real raiding landscapes showed that the observed spatial variation in raid rates may produce high prey diversity at larger spatial scales (due to high β‐diversity) and strong variation in species density. Our results indicate that high spatial variation in army ant swarm raiding is a mechanism capable of generating patchy species distribution patterns and maintaining the high biodiversity of invertebrate communities of the tropical rain forest floor.     

Niche separation of sympatric macaques, Macaca assamensis and M. mulatta, in limestone habitats of Nonggang, China

Comparative studies of sympatric species are essential in understanding those species’ behavioral and ecological adaptations as well as the mechanisms that can reduce resource competition enough to allow coexistence. We collected data on diet, activity budget and habitat use from two sympatric macaque species, the Assamese macaque (Macaca assamensis) and the rhesus macaque (M. mulatta), in a limestone seasonal rainforest of Nonggang Nature Reserve, southwestern Guangxi, China. Our results show that the two sympatric macaques differ in diet, activity budget, and habitat use: (1) out of the 131 plant species that were used by both macaque species as food over the year, only 15 plant species (11 %) were shared. Rhesus macaques used more plant species as major foods, and had higher dietary diversity and evenness indexes than Assamese macaques. (2) Assamese macaques fed predominantly on leaves, whereas rhesus macaques fed more selectively on fruits. The rhesus macaques’ diet varied according to season, and was significantly correlated to season fluctuation in fruit availability. (3) Assamese macaques devoted more time to resting, and less time to feeding than rhesus macaques (4) Assamese macaques were present mostly on the cliff, and tended to stay on the ground, whereas rhesus macaques were present mostly on the hillside, and showed preference to lower and middle canopy. The observed differences in diet and habitat use between the two macaque species represent behavioral patterns enabling their coexistence.     

The rise of hyperabundant native generalists threatens both humans and nature

In many disturbed terrestrial landscapes, a subset of native generalist vertebrates thrives. The population trends of these disturbance-tolerant species may be driven by multiple factors, including habitat preferences, foraging opportunities (including crop raiding or human refuse), lower mortality when their predators are persecuted (the ‘human shield’ effect) and reduced competition due to declines of disturbance-sensitive species. A pronounced elevation in the abundance of disturbance-tolerant wildlife can drive numerous cascading impacts on food webs, biodiversity, vegetation structure and people in coupled human–natural systems. There is also concern for increased risk of zoonotic disease transfer to humans and domestic animals from wildlife species with high pathogen loads as their abundance and proximity to humans increases. Here we use field data from 58 landscapes to document a supra-regional phenomenon of the hyperabundance and community dominance of Southeast Asian wild pigs and macaques. These two groups were chosen as prime candidates capable of reaching hyperabundance as they are edge adapted, with gregarious social structure, omnivorous diets, rapid reproduction and high tolerance to human proximity. Compared to intact interior forests, population densities in degraded forests were 148% and 87% higher for wild boar and macaques, respectively. In landscapes with >60% oil palm coverage, wild boar and pig-tailed macaque estimated abundances were 337% and 447% higher than landscapes with <1% oil palm coverage, respectively, suggesting marked demographic benefits accrued by crop raiding on calorie-rich food subsidies. There was extreme community dominance in forest landscapes with >20% oil palm cover where two pig and two macaque species accounted for >80% of independent camera trap detections, leaving <20% for the other 85 mammal species >1 kg considered. Establishing the population trends of pigs and macaques is imperative since they are linked to cascading impacts on the fauna and flora of local forest ecosystems, disease and human health, and economics (i.e., crop losses). The severity of potential negative cascading effects may motivate control efforts to achieve ecosystem integrity, human health and conservation objectives. Our review concludes that the rise of native generalists can be mediated by specific types of degradation, which influences the ecology and conservation of natural areas, creating both positive and detrimental impacts on intact ecosystems and human society.     

Social Behavior of Captive Indochinese and Insular Long-Tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis) Following Transfer to a New Facility

There are measurable differences in behavior, physiology, social organization, and geographic distribution within and between various species of macaques. We collected information on the social behavior of captive Macaca fascicularis from Indochina and island populations after they had been transferred to a new environment and new social groups. While some changes in behavior occurred over time, we found no decrease in high levels of agonistic behaviors. We interpret this finding in light of previous research reporting that long-tailed macaques show low levels of habitatuation to novelty and are highly aroused in comparison to other macaque species. We found predictable differences in behavior for males, females, and infants, in which infants played more, females had higher levels of contact proximity to other individuals, and males exhibited more sexual and threat behavior. A comparison of social behavior in long-tailed macaques from different origins indicate that Indochinese macaques are generally less affiliative and Indochinese males are more aggressive than their insular counterparts. Differences among macaque species, and within the fascicularis-group, should be considered in management of captive colonies and when interpreting research data.     

Eco-ethological Study on Raiding Behaviour of the European Amazon Ant,Polyergus rufescens Latr. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

In this paper we report the results of a detailed study on the behavioural ecology of slave raiding in the European amazon ant, Polyergus rufescens Latr. The field study, supported also by a video-tape recording technique, was conducted over an unbroken period of 53 days, during which observations of the activity of the residents (both slave-makers and slaves) were made for 10 h each day. It was possible to observe 38 slave raids distributed over 32 days, among which 27 were followed by the sack of 10 different nests of Formica cunicularia Latr., whereas 11 failed because of various reasons. Simple, compound and multiple raids occurred. We recorded the timing, frequency, distance, and direction of slave raids, including the number of participants and the type of captured brood. Moreover, particular attention was paid to the atmospheric conditions present at the moment of the raid onset. Information was also collected about the behaviour of the “activators” and the scouts before and during the movement of the storming column. Both dealate and winged P. rufescens queens, having emerged from the mixed colony during 6 sexual flights, were seen following the outbound raiding column during 4 raids. Finally, some peculiar behaviour, such as digging out the soil near the target nest to facilitate the entry of the raiding swarm, and the pillage of adult ants (eudulosis) was recorded and described. Data have been compared with what is known about the other species of the genus Polyergus.     

Winter ecology of the Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala in Pangchen Valley,western Arunachal Pradesh,northeastern India

The newly described Arunachal macaque Macaca munzala occurs largely in sub‐tropical to temperate environments at elevations of c. 1,800–3,000 m in Arunachal Pradesh, northeastern India. We studied its over‐wintering strategy by comparing the diet, ranging, and behavior of a troop of 24 individuals during winter and spring (December 2005 to May 2006) through instantaneous scan sampling (3,002 records, 448 scans, 112 hr of observation). We also monitored the phenology of food plants. The macaques spent more time (41–66%) feeding in the winter than in spring (33–51%), whereas time spent moving and resting was greater in spring. The diet composed largely of plants, with animal matter being eaten rarely. The number of plant species in the diet increased from 18 to 25 whereas food types rose from 18 to 36 from winter to spring, respectively. Although only two species formed 75% of the winter diet, seven species comprised this proportion in spring. Availability of fruits and young leaves increased in spring; the troop moved more and utilized a larger part of its range during this time. Seasonal changes in behavior could be explained by the scarcity of food and the costs of thermoregulation in winter. Our study suggests that the Arunachal macaque inhabits a highly seasonal environment and has an over‐wintering strategy that includes subsisting on a high‐fiber diet by increasing the time spent feeding, and minimizing energy expenditure by reducing the time spent moving. Am. J. Primatol. 71:939–947, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.