Attitudes Toward Animals: Origins and Diversity

Abstract

It would be difficult to overestimate the significance of animals in the social and psychological life of our species. Images of animals are everywhere: in our language, religions, dreams, television programs, and folklore. The feelings that we exhibit toward our fellow creatures are intense, complex, and paradoxical. Responses to animals range from the disgust we feel when confronted with a bloated tick to the reverence for animals as deities in so-called primitive cultures; from the love of a child for a pet bunny to the paralyzing fear of phobic experiences when confronted by a harmless spider.

In recent years there has been increasing interest in human-animal relationships by investigators from a variety of disciplines. We will not attempt a synthesis of the growing literature on attitudes toward animals, but will follow a different course. For the past decade we have been exploring the diversity and origins of human-animal relationships, and our research has taken us into some rather odd places: cockfights in the United States and Latin America, slaughterhouses, and most recently, the world of supermarket check-out-counter magazines. In this article, we will summarize some of our findings and speculations that bear on the subject of attitudes toward animals. We will also briefly examine alternative methods of gathering information that do justice to the richness of human experience with animals.     

Attitudes of Genetics Professionals Toward the Return of Incidental Results from Exome and Whole-Genome Sequencing

Professional recommendations for the return of results from exome and whole-genome sequencing (ES/WGS) have been controversial. The lack of clear guidance about whether and, if so, how to return ES/WGS incidental results limits the extent to which individuals and families might benefit from ES/WGS. The perspectives of genetics professionals, particularly those at the forefront of using ES/WGS in clinics, are largely unknown. Data on stakeholder perspectives could help clarify how to weigh expert positions and recommendations. We conducted an online survey of 9,857 genetics professionals to learn their attitudes on the return of incidental results from ES/WGS and the recent American College of Medical Genetic and Genomics Recommendations for Reporting of Incidental Findings in Clinical Exome and Genome Sequencing. Of the 847 respondents, 760 completed the survey. The overwhelming majority of respondents thought that incidental ES/WGS results should be offered to adult patients (85%), healthy adults (75%), and the parents of a child with a medical condition (74%). The majority thought that incidental results about adult-onset conditions (62%) and carrier status (62%) should be offered to the parents of a child with a medical condition. About half thought that offered results should not be limited to those deemed clinically actionable. The vast majority (81%) thought that individual preferences should guide return. Genetics professionals’ perspectives on the return of ES/WGS results differed substantially from current recommendations, underscoring the need to establish clear purpose for recommendations on the return of incidental ES/WGS results as professional societies grapple with developing and updating recommendations.     

Development of the Attitudes Toward Vegetarians Scale

Abstract

Studies have explored the motivations behind the decision to become vegetarian, and have explored the well being of vegetarians. However, little research has focused on the social psychological and interpersonal aspects of vegetarianism. The focus of this study was to develop a scale designed to measure attitudes toward vegetarians (ATVS). This scale measures a one-factor construct with adequate internal consistency. The ATVS correlated significantly with the construct of authoritarianism, and, as expected, the ATVS did not correlate significantly with social desirability. In addition, attitudes toward vegetarians were found to be generally positive. The positive attitudes toward vegetarians may be the result of using a college student population that was overwhelmingly female.     

Attitudes Toward Women Physicians: A Study of 500 Clinic Patients

A questionnaire was administered to 500 clinic patients and their replies about men and women physicians were analyzed. Ninety-six percent stated that the typical doctor is a man, and 78 percent expressed a preference for a male doctor. A significant number of patients said they would be unwilling to discuss certain subjects with a woman doctor or to follow her advice. Women physicians were considered less competent and less experienced than their male counterparts.Attitudes toward women doctors were correlated with patients'' sex, age, ethnicity, occupation, and chief complaint. Most impressive statistically were the negative attitudes of Spanish-speaking patients and the positive responses of obstetrics and gynecology patients and black women patients. Patients who had previously consulted women physicians were more favorable toward them, suggesting that increased exposure may lead to reduced prejudice.     

Austrian Dream Behavior: Results of a Representative Population Survey

This study was based on a survey of a representative sample of 1000 Austrians who were questioned about their sleep and dream behavior. About two-thirds of the respondents reported that they generally recalled at least one dream per month. Dream recall frequency decreased with advancing age, but did not differ between men and women. Fifty-five percent of the respondents characterized the affective content of their dreams: 29% reported neutral, 20% positive, and 6% negative dreams. Four percent of the sample reported suffering from nightmares. These respondents more frequently reported snoring, interrupted sleep, daytime somnolence, anxiety and nervousness, depression, high dream recall, recurrent dreams, and dreaming in color. Twenty-six percent of the total sample reported that sometimes they realized during their dreams that they were dreaming. These respondents more frequently reported family problems, high dream recall, positive dream content, recurrent dreams, dreaming in color, and nightmares.     

Attitudes of Obstetric and Gynecologic Residents Toward Abortion

As a follow-up to Wolf''s study of attitudes of obstetrical housestaff toward therapeutic abortion,⁵ the attitudes of 48 obstetrical residents in the San Francisco Bay area were evaluated by questionnaire and structured interview. Specific issues studied were: (1) Willingness to perform therapeutic abortion, (2) impact of therapeutic abortion on Resident Training Program, (3) attitudes toward different operational procedures, and (4) preferred physician-patient relationship with therapeutic abortion patients. Findings suggest that although there is recognition and acceptance by most residents of the social need for therapeutic abortion, considerable ambivalence persists.     

The Genesis and Correlates of Attitudes Toward Pets

Abstract

Pet Attitude Scale score (Templer, Salter, Dickey, Baldwin, and Veleber 1981) of adolescents was best predicted both in univariate and multivariate analyses by Pet Attitude Scale score of the adolescent's mother and by the presence or absence of a pet in the home. The pet attitude of daughters correlated more highly with the pet attitude of their mothers and their fathers than did the pet attitude of the sons. A noteworthy finding was the virtual absence of any relationship between pet attitude of fathers and pet attitude of sons. Other variables associated with higher pet attitudes of adolescents included not being afraid of animals, and on the Family Environment Scale, more expressiveness, more independence, less achievement orientation, and less control. Pet contact in school was not related to adolescent pet attitude.     

Attitudes Toward Companion Animals Among Hispanic Residents of a Texas Border Community

The researchers surveyed 206 residents of a Hispanic community on the Texas-Mexico border about their behaviors and attitudes toward companion animals. Selected members of the community administered a telephone survey to a systematic random sample of 206 individuals. The majority of participants believed that free-roaming dogs were a problem in their community, and nearly 81% responded that these dogs sometimes prevented them from walking outdoors. About 24% of dog guardians sometimes let their nonhuman animals roam free in the streets. Most study participants believed it was a good idea to sterilize both male and female dogs and cats, but only 11% of respondents' dogs and 27% of cats were sterilized. About 62% of households chained dogs outdoors; persons with an elementary-level education were 7 times more likely to chain their dogs than those who had completed some high school. The Hispanic population of the United States is growing rapidly; to guide officials charged with protecting animal welfare and the public health, it will become increasingly important to understand Hispanics' attitudes and behaviors toward companion animals.