What Is (Not) a Baboon?

The term “baboon” is the common name used for a subset of terrestrial Cercopithecines with large bodies and protruding snouts. Although the application of the term has changed considerably over the years, we argue that common names, such as “baboon,” should reflect the current state of phylogenetic knowledge. This practice promotes a broader understanding of taxonomic diversity that can impact decisions related to ecotourism, wildlife management, and conservation. Thus, we argue that “baboon” should be used only for members of the genus Papio.     

Is Cycas revoluta (Cycadaceae) wind- or insect-pollinated?

Among the Cycadales (Cycadaceae and Zamiaceae), the Zamiaceae are known to be insect-pollinated. In contrast, the Cycadaceae are still considered wind-pollinated, although some doubt has been cast on several species, including Cycas revoluta. Using a large population of C. revoluta on Yonaguni Island (Okinawa, Japan), we performed exclusion experiments, documented insects from male and female cones, and analyzed the morphology of the apical part of the ovule to determine the pollination method of this species. Insect exclusion resulted in a notable reduction in seed set, except in a few individuals growing near male cones. The amount of airborne pollen was abundant within a 2-m radius of male cones but decreased markedly beyond this distance. Pollen grains of C. revoluta were found on the body of Carpophilus chalybeus (Nitidulidae, Coleoptera), one of a few species of insects collected from both male cones and female cones far from males. We conclude that C. revoluta relies on both wind (anemophily) and insect pollination (entomophily), although such anemophily is restricted to female trees growing within a 2-m radius of male trees. The nitidulids are not host specific to this cycad and primarily feed on plant tissue but serve as pollinators during pollen release. Cycas revoluta appears to be in an initial mode of animal pollination, as opposed to the host-specific insect pollination observed in most Zamiaceae.     

Is Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoaceae) really an oviparous plant?

Germination of Ginkgo biloba seeds with intact and removed sarcotesta was compared to test the role of the seed coat in germination biology. The presence of an intact sarcotesta significantly reduced total germination percentage when compared to seeds with the sarcotesta removed. Some seeds were also cold stratified. This treatment was not necessary for germination, but it did improve total germination percentage. The seeds were collected during the period of natural abscission. Contrary to the accepted literature, we found that Ginkgo seeds contain well-developed embryos at the time of dispersal. These data demonstrate that the seed coat contributes to winter dormancy of G. biloba, and that the phenology of this species is less primitive than popularly believed.     

Is Mythimna turca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) a migrant?

The double line moth, Mythimna turca (Linnaeus, 1761) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is an important widely distributed insect species. Studies on the moth in European countries have focused on population monitoring and in China on taxonomy of Mythimna and distribution surveys of M. turca. However, whether M. turca is a migratory insect is unknown. Here, migration of the moth population was monitored using a searchlight trap from 2004 to 2020 on Beihuang island, Northern China, providing direct evidence that M. turca migrates across the Bohai Strait seasonally, in late May to early September. Population dynamics, ovarian development, wind direction and possible migration trajectories were also analyzed. Most moths migrated in June and at the end of August and the beginning of September, and a few migrated in May, July and October. The average duration of this windborne migratory period of M. turca was 93 d. Migratory trajectories demonstrated that M. turca mainly moved northward in spells of southerly winds from June to August and moved southward in spells of northerly winds during September. This new key information about the ecology of M. turca population will aid the formulation of M. turca management strategies.     

Is genetically related macrophage factor (GRF) a soluble immune response (Ir) gene product?

The possibility that the antigen-presenting "macrophages" interacting with helper cells either directly or via the intermediary action of a soluble factor consisting of Ia antigen and a fragment of immunogen, termed GRG (genetically related factor), are a site of Ir gene action was investigated by using the synthetic polypeptide antigen (T,G)-A--L. It was found that T cells from (responder x nonresponder) F1 mice were stimulated by responder "macrophages" or GRF derived from these cells but not by the nonresponder macrophages of GRF from these cells. This suggests that the defect in helper cell induction in nonresponders is at the level of the presenting cell and that the macrophage factor GRF is a soluble Ir gene product. This conclusion was supported by the observation that there was normal presenting cell and GRF function in nonresponders, mouse strains such as CBA that yield helper cells and helper factor with (T,G)-A--L and have defects elsehwere.     

Why Is Golden Rice Golden (Yellow) Instead of Red?

The endosperm of Golden Rice (Oryza sativa) is yellow due to the accumulation of beta-carotene (provitamin A) and xanthophylls. The product of the two carotenoid biosynthesis transgenes used in Golden Rice, phytoene synthase (PSY) and the bacterial carotene desaturase (CRTI), is lycopene, which has a red color. The absence of lycopene in Golden Rice shows that the pathway proceeds beyond the transgenic end point and thus that the endogenous pathway must also be acting. By using TaqMan real-time PCR, we show in wild-type rice endosperm the mRNA expression of the relevant carotenoid biosynthetic enzymes encoding phytoene desaturase, zeta-carotene desaturase, carotene cis-trans-isomerase, beta-lycopene cyclase, and beta-carotene hydroxylase; only PSY mRNA was virtually absent. We show that the transgenic phenotype is not due to up-regulation of expression of the endogenous rice pathway in response to the transgenes, as was suggested to be the case in tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) fruit, where CRTI expression resulted in a similar carotenoid phenomenon. This means that beta-carotene and xanthophyll formation in Golden Rice relies on the activity of constitutively expressed intrinsic rice genes (carotene cis-trans-isomerase, alpha/beta-lycopene cyclase, beta-carotene hydroxylase). PSY needs to be supplemented and the need for the CrtI transgene in Golden Rice is presumably due to insufficient activity of the phytoene desaturase and/or zeta-carotene desaturase enzyme in endosperm. The effect of CRTI expression was also investigated in leaves of transgenic rice and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Here, again, the mRNA levels of intrinsic carotenogenic enzymes remained unaffected; nevertheless, the carotenoid pattern changed, showing a decrease in lutein, while the beta-carotene-derived xanthophylls increased. This shift correlated with CRTI-expression and is most likely governed at the enzyme level by lycopene-cis-trans-isomerism. Possible implications are discussed.     

Is the F(ST) a good predictor of extinction?

The organization of neutral genetic variation has long been used as a diagnostic tool to infer demographic properties of populations, and recently it has been shown that this information can also be used to estimate the magnitude of genetic deterioration in small or fragmented populations. A further step of this research is to assess whether neutral genetic indicators can serve to predict and compare the viabilities of endangered species. I use modeling to explore how ecological metapopulation settings are related to neutral genetic indicators (such as the fixation index [F(ST)]), changes in genetic load, and metapopulation viability. The analysis indicates that genetic indicators are generally strongly and consistently correlated with the genetic load, population size and structure, and time of extinction but identifies two potential limitations for their use in viability assessments. First, the regime of environmental perturbations is not accurately reflected by neutral indicators, so that their predictive power may be reduced in variable environments. Second, many species are threatened by recent human-induced changes of their habitat configuration. In most cases, genetic indicators may not have reached their equilibrium value in the altered habitat, which limits their ability to compare species with heterogeneous histories and life-history traits.     

Intracellular signalling: Is PIP(2) a messenger too?

The phospholipid phosphatidylinositol (4,5) bisphosphate (PIP(2)) has recently been shown to act downstream of the small G proteins Rac and Arf. Different effectors may be employed in each case, suggesting that PIP(2) has multiple signalling roles.     

Is Phillyrea angustifolia L. (Oleaceae) an androdioecious species?

LEPART, J. & DOMMEE B., 1992. Is Phillyrea angustifolia L. (Oleaceae) an androdioecious species? Observations during two or three years on three natural populations of Phillyrea angustifolia growing in contrasting environments in southern France show that two distinct phenotypes occur in approximately equal proportions: hermaphrodites, which produce pollen and seeds, and males, which produce pollen only. The populations studied are thus morphologically androdioecious. Biometric investigation of the two morphs shows that they are clearly distinguished by (1) the shape of the stigma and (2) the ovary which is well developed in hermaphrodites and aborted in males. Neither size of anthers and corolla, nor pollen germination, differ between the two sexes. In the Camargue, where P. angustifolia is presently an invader, controlled crosses between hermaphrodites (selfing and inter-individual) are partially successful. In contrast, such crosses are sterile in the well-established population of the La Gardiole. Hence the Camargue population appears to be functionally androdioecious and La Gardiole functionally dioecious. This breeding system is particularly puzzling, since the occurrence of anemogamy and possible selfing do not fit classical explanations of androdioecy. The ability of hermaphrodites to be functionally male and female could be particularly adaptive in founding populations. Since functional hermaphroditism occurs in expanding populations of the Camargue population, we consider that the androdioecy of P. angustifolia could be a kind of leaky dioecism.     

Is beta-poly(L-malate) synthesis catalysed by a combination of beta-L-malyl-AMP-ligase and beta-poly(L-malate) polymerase?

beta-Poly(L-malate) is supposed to function in the storage and transport of histones, DNA polymerases and other nuclear proteins in the giant syncytical cells (plasmodia) of myxomycetes. Here we report on the biosynthesis of [14C]beta-poly(L-malate) from injected L-[14C]malate in the plasmodium of Physarum polycephalum. The effects of KCN, arsenate, adenosine 5'-(alpha, beta-methylene)triphosphate, adenosine 5'-(beta, gamma-methylene)triphosphate, guanosine 5'-(beta, gamma-methylene)triphosphate, desulfo coenzyme A and phenylarsinoxid on beta-poly(L-malate) synthesis were studied after their coinjection with L-[14C]malate. The synthesis was not affected by KCN or desulfo coenzyme A, but was blocked by arsenate and adenosine 5'-(alpha,beta-methylene)triphosphate. The plasmodium lysate catalysed an L-malate-dependent ATP-[32P]pyrophosphate exchange, but was devoid of beta-poly(L-malate) synthetic activity under all experimental conditions tested. The results suggested an extramitochondrial synthesis of beta-poly(L-malate), involving the polymerization of beta-L-malyl-AMP. It is assumed that the lack of synthesis in the lysate is caused by the inactivation of beta-poly(L-malate) polymerase involving a cell injury kinase pathway. Because injected guanosine 5'-(beta, gamma-methylene)triphosphate blocks the synthesis, the injury signal is likely to be GTP dependent.     

Is Ag(I) an adequate probe for Cu(I) in structural copper–metallothionein studies?

The binding abilities of silver(I) to mammalian MT 1 have been studied and compared with those of copper(I), recently reported [Bofill et al. (2001) J Biol Inorg Chem 6:408–417], with the aim of analyzing the suitability of Ag(I) as a Cu(I) probe in Cu–MT studies. The Zn/Ag replacement in recombinant mouse Zn₇–MT 1 and corresponding Zn₄-MT 1 and Zn₃-MT 1 fragments, as well as the stepwise incorporation of Ag(I) to the corresponding apo-MTs, have been followed in parallel by various spectroscopic techniques including electronic absorption (UV–vis), circular dichroism (CD) and electrospray mass spectrometry coupled to capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE-ESI-MS). A comparative analysis of the sets of data obtained in the titration of Zn₇–MT 1, Zn₄–MT 1 and Zn₃-MT 1 with AgClO₄ at pH 7.5 and 2.5 has led to the reaction pathways followed during the incorporation of silver to these proteins under these specific conditions, disclosing unprecedented stoichiometries and structural features for the species formed. Thus, the Zn/Ag replacement in Zn₇–MT 1 at pH 7.5 has revealed the subsequent formation of Ag₄Zn₅–MT, Ag₇Zn₃–MT, Ag₈Zn₃–MT, Ag₁₀Zn₂–MT, Ag₁₂Zn₁–MT, Ag_x–MT, x=14–19, whose structure consists of two additive domains only if Zn(II) remains coordinated to the protein. A second structural role for Zn(II) has been deduced from the different folding found for the Ag_x–MT species of the same stoichiometry formed at pH 7.5 or 2.5. Comparison of the binding features of Cu(I) and Ag(I) to the entire MT at pH 7.5 shows that, among all the _xZn_y–MT (0y<7) species found, only M^I₄Zn₅–MT [(Zn₄)(₄Zn₁)] and M^I₇Zn₃–MT [(₃Zn₂)(₄Zn₁)], which form during the first stages of the Zn(II)/M(I) metal replacement, show comparable 3D structures; thus, they are the only species where Ag(I) ions can be predicted to be an adequate probe for Cu(I).Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at .     

Is polecat (Mustela putorius) diet affected by “mediterraneity”?

Carnivores in Mediterranean ecosystems respond to the inherent heterogeneity of these systems by tracking the spatial and temporal availability of food resources. This feeding strategy, however, has been associated primarily with generalist carnivores and little is known for specialist species such as the European polecat. We collected polecat scat to determine the diet of this species, how it matches the seasonal availability of food resources, and how it is affected by population spatial structure and anthropogenic disturbance. Polecats were present in only 34% of the surveyed area and were clumped into three main population nuclei. Despite the spatial segregation of the populations, they had no significant differences in food items consumed. Polecats mostly fed on mammals (percentage of occurrence (P.O.)=43%) and arthropods (P.O.=49%). Biomass intake was also mostly from mammals (percentage of biomass (P.B.)=96%), followed by birds (P.B.=3%), with arthropods contributing less than 1%. Lagomorphs were the most consumed prey (P.O.=25% and P.B.=87%), which is consistent with the marked spatial overlap between scat with high content in lagomorphs and the areas with high wild rabbit availability. These results indicate that polecats are specialists in the consumption of wild rabbits, spatially track the availability of this prey, and may be affected by the decrease in abundance of the prey populations. Future conservation of polecats in Mediterranean regions of southern Portugal may be achieved through the restoration of hunted and diseased wild rabbit populations.     

The Inner Centromere Protein (INCENP) Coil Is a Single α-Helix (SAH) Domain That Binds Directly to Microtubules and Is Important for Chromosome Passenger Complex (CPC) Localization and Function in Mitosis

The chromosome passenger complex (CPC) is a master regulator of mitosis. Inner centromere protein (INCENP) acts as a scaffold regulating CPC localization and activity. During early mitosis, the N-terminal region of INCENP forms a three-helix bundle with Survivin and Borealin, directing the CPC to the inner centromere where it plays essential roles in chromosome alignment and the spindle assembly checkpoint. The C-terminal IN box region of INCENP is responsible for binding and activating Aurora B kinase. The central region of INCENP has been proposed to comprise a coiled coil domain acting as a spacer between the N- and C-terminal domains that is involved in microtubule binding and regulation of the spindle checkpoint. Here we show that the central region (213 residues) of chicken INCENP is not a coiled coil but a ∼32-nm-long single α-helix (SAH) domain. The N-terminal half of this domain directly binds to microtubules in vitro. By analogy with previous studies of myosin 10, our data suggest that the INCENP SAH might stretch up to ∼80 nm under physiological forces. Thus, the INCENP SAH could act as a flexible “dog leash,” allowing Aurora B to phosphorylate dynamic substrates localized in the outer kinetochore while at the same time being stably anchored to the heterochromatin of the inner centromere. Furthermore, by achieving this flexibility via an SAH domain, the CPC avoids a need for dimerization (required for coiled coil formation), which would greatly complicate regulation of the proximity-induced trans-phosphorylation that is critical for Aurora B activation.     

Is dispersal density-dependent in carabid beetles? A field experiment with Harpalus rufipes (Degeer) and Pterostichus niger (Schaller) (Col., Carabidae)

In order to investigate whether density affects dispersal, carabid beetles of two species, Harpalus rufipes (Degeer) and Pterostichus niger (Schaller), were released separately in six and two field enclosures, respectively. The enclosures were 4 m² each and located in an oat field. The former species was released in seven densities, each with 12 replicates and the latter in five densities each with four replicates. Beetles leaving the centre of the enclosures were captured in pitfall traps along a 1 m wide strip of bare soil. Logistic models were fitted to the data. There were no significant effects of the density treatment variable on P. niger. For H. rufipes the best model was obtained by specifying the density treatment as a nominal variable. The deviance accounted for by this model was highly significant. There were, however, no consistent trends for either species with respect to the density treatment. The inclusion of climatic variables, the number of new beetles introduced at the onset of each trial, or the date of the trial did not improve the fit of any of the models. It is concluded that density did not significantly increase dispersal in the two species. It thus appears that a possible increase in behavioural interactions (i.e. interference competition) did not increase the dispersal in adults of the two species examined in this experiment.     

Beta2 Adrenergic Receptor (ADRβ2) Haplotype Pair (2/4) Is Associated with Severe Asthma

Background

β2 adrenergic receptor (ADRβ2) polymorphisms including ADRβ2+46G>A have been reported to cause adverse outcomes in mild asthmatics. The extent to which ADRβ2 polymorphisms and in particular their haplotypes contribute to severe asthma is unknown.

Objective

To determine the association of ADRβ2 polymorphisms and haplotypes with asthma severity.

Methods

Caucasians (n = 2979) were genotyped for 11 ADRβ2 polymorphisms. The cohort (mean age 39.6, 60% female) included 2296 non-asthmatics, 386 mild asthmatics, 172 moderate asthmatics and 125 severe asthmatics. Haplotype frequency and haplotype pair for each subject was determined using the PHASE algorithm.

Results

The three asthmatic cohorts were comparable in age and gender but were distinguishable from each other in terms of symptoms, spirometry, medication use and health care utilisation (p <0.001). None of the polymorphisms showed a genotypic or allelic association with asthma diagnosis or severity. Nine haplotypes were identified and no association was found with asthma diagnosis or severity per se. Haplotype pair 2/4 was associated with asthma severity (Trend Test, OR 1.42, p = 0.0008) but not with asthma per se. Prevalence of haplotype pair 2/2 appeared to decrease with asthma severity (Trend Test, OR 0.78, p = 0.067). Two new haplotypes were identified, occurring exclusively in asthmatics at a frequency of ≥ 1%. In addition, a positive association between carriage of ADRβ2 +523*C and increased risk of atopy was discovered.

Conclusions

ADRβ2 haplotype pair 2/4 is associated with severe asthma and is consistent with findings of poor bronchodilator response in mild asthmatics who are also haplotype 2/4.