Genetic indications of translocated and stocked grey partridges (Perdix perdix): does the indigenous Danish grey partridge still exist?

Non‐local population stocking can have adverse genetic effects on wild populations through loss of genetic diversity and introgressive hybridization. The grey partridge (Perdix perdix) has been an important European game species for centuries, widely subject to translocation and stocking. After c. 80 years of releasing reared grey partridges in Denmark, this study investigated whether an indigenous Danish grey partridge still existed. If so, they would (1) belong to the western European clade (W1) and (2) be more closely related to the historical, indigenous grey partridges than to farm‐bred partridges. These predictions were tested by analysing the variation in both the mitochondrial control region (CR1) and microsatellite markers in museum samples representing the ancestral indigenous Danish grey partridge, contemporary wild grey partridges and farmed grey partridges from the five largest farms in Denmark. Phylogeography and population structure analyses showed traces of the indigenous Danish grey partridges amongst recent wild partridges in certain areas and significant genetic differences between farmed partridges and historical and recent partridges. The results also showed that the indigenous Danish grey partridges belonged to the western European clade (W1 haplotype). A foreign stocking effect was detected on the remote island of Bornholm, where the current population originated from introduced Danish and Bohemian grey partridges. The loss of haplotype diversity over time in certain geographical areas probably results from serious declines in wild Danish grey partridge numbers in recent decades. This, combined with the observation that hybridization between released stocked and wild partridges can occur, may complicate recovery of partridge populations. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 105 , 694–710.     

Fitness consequences of anthropogenic hybridization in wild red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae) populations

Hybridization is a widespread phenomenon, which plays crucial roles in the speciation of living beings. However, unnatural mixing of historically isolated taxa due to human-related activities has increased in recent decades, favouring levels of hybridization and introgression that can have important implications for conservation. The wild red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae) populations have recently declined and the releases of farm-reared partridges have become a widespread management strategy. The native range of the red-legged is limited to the south-west of Europe (from Italy to Portugal). This species does not breed in sympatry with the chukar partridge (A. chukar), whose range is Eurasian (from Turkey to China). However, red-legged partridges have often been hybridized with chukar partridges to increase the productivity of farmed birds, and game releases may have spread hybrid birds into the wild. In this study, we investigated the fitness (survival and breeding) differences between hybrid and “pure” red-legged partridges in a wild population located in central Spain. Incubation probability was similar in hybrids and “pure” partridges. Hybrid females laid larger clutches than “pure” ones, but hatching success did not differ between hybrid and “pure” partridges. Hybrid birds had lower survival rate than “pure” ones, mainly because of higher predation rates. Our results show that, despite lower survival, hybrid partridges breed in natural populations, so this could increase extinction risk of wild pure partridge populations, through releases of farmed hybrid birds. The consequences of continued releases could be of vital importance for the long term conservation of wild red-legged partridges.     

Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers evidence a different pattern of hybridization in red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) populations from NW Italy

Genetic introgression with exotic genomes represents a major conservation concern for the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa, Phasianidae). In particular, massive releases of chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) and/or red-legged × chukar partridge hybrids for hunting purposes have cast serious doubts on the Italian present-day occurrence of wild A. rufa populations not affected by introgressive hybridization. This study investigates the genetic structure of red-legged partridges populations in two ecologically different areas in Northern Italy. Analysis of maternal mitochondrial DNA and biparental microsatellite markers excluded the presence of hybridization in a typical agricultural habitat where hunting and release of reared birds are strictly banned. By contrast, signs of chukar introgression were detected in a perifluvial habitat unusual for the red-legged partridge in Italy. The present study documents the first red-legged partridge population with no genetic evidences of recent chukar introgression presently living in Italy. We recommend that urgent conservation actions are taken to preserve the genetic integrity of this population from the risk of hybridization with farm-reared birds and to support its long-term conservation.     

Prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter in partridges (Perdix perdix)

Aim:  To estimate the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. in commercially reared partridges ( Perdix perdix ) in southern Italy.
Methods and Results:  Cloacal swabs of partridges ( n  =   240), equally distributed between male and female birds, from a game bird farm located in the Southern Italy were examined for the prevalence of thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. The samples were processed in order to detect thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. by culture methods. The positive samples were then confirmed by multiplex polymerase chain reaction. Thermotolerant Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 118 (49·2%) of the 240 cloacal swabs examined. As proved by PCR, 100% of the strains were identified as Campylobacter coli (118/118), and 15 (12·7%) out of the 118 positive samples were also positive for Campylobacter jejuni . In contrast, Campylobacter lari was not identified. Adult partridges showed a significantly higher prevalence ( P  <   0·05) than younger ones.
Conclusion:  These results reinforce the assumption that game birds may be considered as potential carriers of Campylobacter spp. for human being and other animal species.
Significance and Impact of the Study:  Although an earlier 1986 publication described the prevalence of Campylobacter coli in commercially reared partridges, this is the first report to confirm the species of Campylobacter using a PCR test.     

Parasite-mediated competition between pheasant and grey partridge: a preliminary investigation

Pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) and grey partridges (Perdix perdix) were maintained together on land known to be contaminated with eggs of the caecal nematode Heterakis gallinarum to examine the hypothesis that this shared parasite has a greater impact on grey partridges than on pheasants. Since an inverse relationship between worm intensity and partridge body condition was detected, while no such relationship with pheasant body condition was observed, we were unable to refute this hypothesis. Furthermore, that there was no relationship between worm intensity after the exposure period and partridge body mass prior to the infection trial implies that infection caused the decrease in partridge body condition, and not vice versa. Data consistent with previous observations that H. gallinarum fecundity and survival is greater in pheasants than in partridges suggest that the bulk source of nematode infection to wild grey partridges is reared pheasants, and not the partridges themselves. This, and the differential impact on host body condition, supports the hypothesis that the spread of parasites from increasing numbers of released pheasants has contributed to the decline in wild grey partridge populations in the UK within the past 50 years. Received: 11 September 1998 / Accepted: 13 February 1999     

Does targeted management work for red-legged partridges <Emphasis Type="Italic">Alectoris rufa</Emphasis>? Twelve years of the ‘Finca de Matallana’ demonstration project

After the implementation of a management package for red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa) (including habitat improvement, legal predator removal, supplementary feeding and watering and shooting restrain) in an agricultural Mediterranean area of Spain (308 ha), spring pair densities increased from 2.92 to 12.66/km² in 9 years, together with summer densities (from 24 to 98 birds/km²) and autumn densities (from 16.5 to 86 birds/km²). We recorded an overall decrease in the over-winter survival of partridges and an increase in their over-summer survival as time progressed. Productivity doubled in 5 years and densities of wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) significantly increased. Hence, this study shows that a feasible and affordable combination of management tools worked to improve partridge populations, and also helped the recovery of wild rabbits. The study site supported the presence of 42 ‘red-listed’ species (including 21 species of raptors).     

Cytochrome P450 enzyme activity in five herbivorous,non-passerine bird species

We examined hepatic cytochrome P450 activity in wild and hand-reared grey partridges (Perdix perdix), capercaillies (Tetrao urogallus) and ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus), as well as the enzyme activity in a variety of tissues of hand-reared Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) and pigeons (Columba livia). Post-mortem decrease in hepatic enzyme activity in the grey partridge was measured. Hepatic 7-ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase activity was similar in wild and hand-reared grey partridges and pheasants, but the activity was significantly lower in wild than in hand-reared capercaillies, probably resulting from their phenolic-rich diet. In the tissues of both quails and pigeons 7-ethoxycoumarin-O-deethylase exhibited the highest and 7-pentoxyresorufin-O-deethylase the lowest activity. Hepatic enzyme activity was significantly higher than that in other tissues. In the small intestine some activity could be found, reflecting some intestinal detoxication capacity. Enzyme activity decreased by 34-69% during the 30-min sampling period, which confirmed the importance of equalising sampling time to obtain comparable data. Because the hand-reared birds in this study were fed the same commercial diets, we assumed that the enzyme activity values detected reflect species differences without any induction by dietary secondary compounds.     

Estimation of the number and demographics of companion dogs in the UK

Background

The grey partridge is an important game bird in Europe that has declined considerably over the last decades. The production and release of farm-bred birds can be threatened by infectious agents. The objective of this study was to describe the outbreak, pathology, and blood and tissue biochemical responses in a flock of grey partridges naturally infected with Mycoplasma gallisepticum.

Results

Morbidity and mortality rates were 100% and 60%, respectively. Necropsy revealed an accumulation of caseous exudate within the infraorbital sinuses, tracheitis, pneumonia and airsacculitis. There were significant increases in activities of lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase and amylase, and levels of total protein and glucose in Mycoplasma-infected birds when compared to control. Catalase showed significantly lower activity in the heart, lungs, liver and gonads of Mycoplasma-infected birds. Glutathione-S-transferase activity was elevated in the eye and the associated infraorbital sinus and kidneys, and decreased in the liver. Decreased levels of reduced glutathione were found in the heart, kidneys, liver and gonads. The activity of glutathione reductase was lower only in the lungs. Compared to healthy birds, mycoplasmosis in the grey partridge caused significant differences in the level of lipid peroxidation in lungs and plasma (p < 0.05), while the ferric reducing antioxidant power was lower in the heart and kidneys (p < 0.01). Significant correlations among responses of the antioxidant parameters were found namely in the heart, lungs, spleen, liver and plasma. There were also numerous significant inter-tissue correlations of all the studied antioxidant parameters.

Conclusions

The present study demonstrates the high susceptibility of grey partridges to natural infection by M. gallisepticum, the severity of the disease based on histopathology, and the modulation of blood chemical profiles and oxidative stress-associated parameters in the avian hosts, thus enhancing the understanding of the pathogenesis of mycoplasmosis in birds. Moreover, the reported reference values can be useful for the evaluation of the state of health in grey partridges.     

Recruitment of grey and red-legged partridges (Perdix perdix and Alectoris rufa) in relation to population density and habitat

The recruitment of first-year grey and red-legged partridges into subsequent breeding populations was investigated on 17 study areas in Britain.
The density of birds recruited per unit area increased with the density of birds available in their first autumn for potential recruitment in the following spring but decreased with adult density. The relationship between recruitment and adult density, while always negative, differed significantly between areas. These differences were correlated with variation in the amount of nesting habitat available to both species of partridge and with variation in nesting habitat quality. Recruitment of grey partridges was related to length of available nesting habitat, the amount of residual dead grass in the nesting cover, and earth bank height at the base of the nesting cover. Recruitment of red-legged partridges was also related to length of nesting habitat, together with the amount of nettle in the nesting cover.
It is suggested that the attractiveness of different areas to settling recruits is determined by the amount and quality of nesting habitat available.     

Captive breeding for reintroduction: influence of management practices and biological factors on survival of captive kaki (black stilt)

An important component of the restoration strategy for the critically endangered kaki or black stilt (Himantopus novaezelandiae) is captive breeding for release. Since 1981 1,879 eggs were collected from wild and captive pairs, with birds laying up to four clutches. Eggs were incubated artificially and most chicks reared by hand until released as juveniles (about 60 days) or sub‐adults (9–10 months). Because survival in captivity is a significant determinant of the number of birds available for release, we wished to identify sources of variation in mortality to assess potential impacts of management on productivity. Hatchability was 78% for captive‐laid eggs and 91% for wild‐laid eggs. Survival of hatched eggs was 82% by 10 months of age for both wild and captive birds. Most egg mortality occurred early in incubation and around hatching: the timing of mortality was unaffected by whether birds were captive or wild, hybrid or pure kaki, or when eggs were laid. Heavier hatchlings showed higher initial survival, as did chicks from wild parents. Hatchlings from fourth‐laid eggs showed lowest survival, even though hatchling mass tended to increase with hatch order. Survival of chicks subjected to major health interventions was 69% after 4 months. No differences in survival were found between different genders, hybrids and pure kaki, hand‐reared or parent‐reared birds, chicks hatching early or late in the season, different seasons, different‐sized groups of chicks, chicks reared in different brooders, juveniles kept in different aviaries, and chicks from subsequent clutches. Birds subjected to minor health interventions were equally likely to survive as healthy chicks (82%). Survival was high despite aggressive management (quadruple clutching and collecting late in the season). Differences between captive and wild birds suggest further improvements could be made to captive diet. Wide variation in hatchability between parent pairs substantiates the practice of breaking up poorly performing pairs. Zoo Biol 0:1–16, 2005. © 2005 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Senescence or selective disappearance? Age trajectories of body mass in wild and captive populations of a small-bodied primate

Classic theories of ageing consider extrinsic mortality (EM) a major factor in shaping longevity and ageing, yet most studies of functional ageing focus on species with low EM. This bias may cause overestimation of the influence of senescent declines in performance over condition-dependent mortality on demographic processes across taxa. To simultaneously investigate the roles of functional senescence (FS) and intrinsic, extrinsic and condition-dependent mortality in a species with a high predation risk in nature, we compared age trajectories of body mass (BM) in wild and captive grey mouse lemurs (Microcebus murinus) using longitudinal data (853 individuals followed through adulthood). We found evidence of non-random mortality in both settings. In captivity, the oldest animals showed senescence in their ability to regain lost BM, whereas no evidence of FS was found in the wild. Overall, captive animals lived longer, but a reversed sex bias in lifespan was observed between wild and captive populations. We suggest that even moderately condition-dependent EM may lead to negligible FS in the wild. While high EM may act to reduce the average lifespan, this evolutionary process may be counteracted by the increased fitness of the long-lived, high-quality individuals.     

Vigilance and fitness in grey partridges Perdix perdix: the effects of group size and foraging-vigilance trade-offs on predation mortality

1. Vigilance increases fitness by improving predator detection but at the expense of increasing starvation risk. We related variation in vigilance among 122 radio-tagged overwintering grey partridges Perdix perdix (L.) across 20 independent farmland sites in England to predation risk (sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus L., kill rate), use of alternative antipredation behaviours (grouping and use of cover) and survival. 2. Vigilance was significantly higher when individuals fed in smaller groups and in taller vegetation. In the covey period (in early winter when partridges are in flocks), vigilance and use of taller vegetation was significantly higher at sites with higher sparrowhawk predation risk, but tall vegetation was used less by larger groups. Individuals were constrained in reducing individual vigilance by group size and habitat choice because maximum group size was determined by overall density in the area during the covey period and by the formation of pairs at the end of the winter (pair period), when there was also a significant twofold increase in the use of tall cover. 3. Over the whole winter individual survival was higher in larger groups and was lower in the pair period. However, when controlling for group size, mean survival decreased as vigilance increased in the covey period. This result, along with vigilance being higher at sites with increasing with raptor risk, suggests individual vigilance increases arose to reduce short-term predation risk from raptors but led to long-term fitness decreases probably because high individual vigilance increased starvation risk or indicated longer exposure to predation. The effect of raptors on survival was less when there were large groups in open habitats, where individual partridges can probably both detect predators and feed efficiently. 4. Our study suggests that increasing partridge density and modifying habitat to remove the need for high individual vigilance may decrease partridge mortality. It demonstrates the general principle that antipredation behaviours may reduce fitness long-term via their effects on the starvation-predation risk trade-off, even though they decrease predation risk short-term, and that it may be ecological constraints, such as poor habitat (that lead to an antipredation behaviour compromising foraging), that cause mortality, rather than the proximate effect of an antipredation behaviour such as vigilance.     

Introgression of Alectoris chukar genes into a Spanish wild Alectoris rufa population

In order to detect introgression of other Alectoris genus species into wild populations of Spanish Alectoris rufa, we studied a sample of 93 red-legged partridges (supposed to be A. rufa) captured in the island of Majorca. A set of 31 chukar partridges (Alectoris chukar) from Cyprus and 33 red-legged partridges (A. rufa) from one Spanish farm were also studied to provide suitable populations for comparison. Factorial correspondence analysis on microsatellite genotypes supported a clear distinction of birds from Cyprus, whereas partridges from Majorca and the Spanish farm overlapped in a wide area. The existence of A. chukar mitochondrial DNA in 16 individuals from Majorca indicated introgression into their maternal lineage even if their phenotypes were not different from A. rufa. Bayesian inference based on microsatellite analysis indicated a noticeable degree of genetic proximity to A. chukar only for one of these hybrids.     

The link between metabolic rate and body temperature in galliform birds in thermoneutral and heat exposure conditions: The classical and phylogenetically corrected approach

Three galliform species (grey partridges, ring-necked pheasants, and king quail) were involved in body temperature and resting metabolic rate measurements over a broad range of ambient temperatures (20–45 °C). At thermoneutrality, inter-species differences in colonic temperature, as well as in metabolic rate, were observed. During heat exposure, all species reacted by elevating their body temperatures above 44 °C, thereby inducing temporary hyperthermia. Heat-stressing birds resulted in a slightly increased metabolic rate in king quail, but not in partridges and pheasants. Based on data of body temperature and weight specific (per body mass unit) basal metabolic rate among ten species of Galliformes order, classical and phylogenetically corrected analyses of covariation between these two physiological traits were performed. The scaling of body temperature to body mass, revealed a significant exponent of: −0.0062 and −0.0080 for conventional and phylogenetical methods, respectively. In the analyzed species, a strong positive relationship between residuals of body mass values between body temperature and metabolic rate were found. The results obtained may show a plausible evolutionary link between these traits in galliform birds.     

Pheasant release in Great Britain: long-term and large-scale changes in the survival of a managed bird

The release of artificially reared pheasants is a widespread practice in Great Britain, used to increase the number of birds available for hunting. We examined the spatial and temporal patterns of release and shooting between 1960 and 2014 using data from a self-selected sample of 1195 sites. We examined changes in the efficiency of release, the contribution of birds that were not released that year to the numbers shot, and the form of these relationships through time. An annual estimate of the efficiency by which releasing increased the numbers shot was 50% over the period 1960–1990 declining rapidly to 35% by 2005 and reducing more slowly thereafter. There was no obvious regional pattern to this relationship. It has been hypothesised that the efficiency of releasing is lower on sites that release higher densities of pheasants; this study does not support this hypothesis. Annual variation in the density of birds shot in the absence of releasing (1960–1990) was closely correlated with a measure of annual gamebird chick survival. After this date, the relationship was no longer significant, consistent with a decline in wild pheasant stocks and coinciding with the declines in other farmland birds. We highlight increased fox abundance, genetic and behavioural changes arising from the rearing process, and increased shooting in late winter as possible causes for the observed decline in releasing efficiency. We consider the general increase in rearing, habitat changes, increased disease or losses to protected predators as unlikely to have been important causes of the changes in releasing efficiency. Pheasant releasing results in increased numbers for shooting, but has not prevented the wide-scale decline of wild pheasant numbers.     

Hand-Rearing,Release and Survival of African Penguin Chicks Abandoned Before Independence by Moulting Parents

The African penguin Spheniscus demersus has an ‘Endangered’ conservation status and a decreasing population. Following abandonment, 841 African penguin chicks in 2006 and 481 in 2007 were admitted to SANCCOB (Southern African Foundation for the Conservation of Coastal Birds) for hand-rearing from colonies in the Western Cape, South Africa, after large numbers of breeding adults commenced moult with chicks still in the nest. Of those admitted, 91% and 73% respectively were released into the wild. There were veterinary concerns about avian malaria, airsacculitis and pneumonia, feather-loss and pododermatitis (bumblefoot). Post-release juvenile (0.32, s.e.  = 0.08) and adult (0.76, s.e.  = 0.10) survival rates were similar to African penguin chicks reared after oil spills and to recent survival rates recorded for naturally-reared birds. By December 2012, 12 birds had bred, six at their colony of origin, and the apparent recruitment rate was 0.11 (s.e.  = 0.03). Hand-rearing of abandoned penguin chicks is recommended as a conservation tool to limit mortality and to bolster the population at specific colonies. The feasibility of conservation translocations for the creation of new colonies for this species using hand-reared chicks warrants investigation. Any such programme would be predicated on adequate disease surveillance programmes established to minimise the risk of disease introduction to wild birds.     

Tannins — a dietary problem for hand-reared grey partridge Perdix perdix after release?

A 4-week feeding trial on 22 grey partridges Perdix perdix was conducted in this study. Seven birds were fed commercial poultry food, seven natural food and eight commercial poultry food containing 6% of quebracho-tannin. Our results suggest that 6% dietary tannin, when added to a commercial food with high protein content, effects the grey partridge only slightly. No difference was seen in food consumption and body mass remained stable. However, birds fed tannin had longer small intestines, which most probably indicate gastrointestinal detoxication. They also excreted a high amount of tannin in their faeces. In addition, no between-group variation was seen in cytochrome P450 enzymes. Birds fed natural food had high concentration of nitrogen in intestinal excreta and high plasma alanine concentrations. They also suffered a rapid decrease in body mass after the change in diet and their body mass remained low. This may indicate increased protein excretion and/or catabolism of endogenous nutrient reserves. Potential short-term effects of the change in diet were seen in plasma. These findings coincide with the high mortality period of birds released into the wild.     

Variation in selection pressure acting on body size by age and sex in a reverse sexual size dimorphic raptor

Body size strongly influences fitness, with larger individuals benefiting in terms of both greater productivity and survivorship; for reverse sexual size dimorphic (RSD) species, this relationship may be more complex. We examined the selection pressures acting on body size in male and female Merlins Falco columbarius to assess whether larger or smaller individuals of this RSD species were favoured in terms of survival and breeding performance. For males and females there were clear links between body size and survival but the exact relationship varied by sex. Among males, birds that survived each year class were larger than those that died and yearlings were on average smaller than older birds, but there were no measurable differences among adult males (age 2+). Among females, larger individuals aged 1 and 2 years were more likely to survive, but this size‐based pattern was not apparent in older age classes. Size early in life predicted the lifespan in male Merlins but not as strongly as for females and not for the largest individuals. Reproductive performance based on brood size was not associated with body size in either males or females, but there was a weak positive relationship between female body size and lifetime reproductive success. Selection appears to favour larger males and females but there is no indication that the population is evolving towards bigger individuals, perhaps in part due to selection against the largest birds. Increased survival may allow larger and higher quality individuals to occupy higher quality territories as they age and thereby to accrue greater lifetime reproductive success in the process.     

Small game water troughs in a Spanish agrarian pseudo steppe: visits and water site choice by wild fauna

This paper studies the visits of wild fauna, the influence of vegetal cover and fencing at water site election, and consumption tendency in water troughs designed for small game species distributed in an agricultural Mediterranean area during the summers from 2002 to 2005. Red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa), lagomorphs (Oryctolagus cuniculus, Lepus granatensis), and other autochthonous species (birds and wild canids) visited water sources throughout the study. The number of visits by target species was higher than non-game. Lagomorphs preferred protected troughs (with surrounding vegetal cover) while partridges opted for open ones (without cover). Fencing had no effect on the visits of birds and lagomorphs, but it did reduce the visits of wild canids. Harsh climatic conditions determined an increase in water consumption in summer. Before designing a water trough device for this fauna, managers should consider that (1) target and non-target species could try to make use of it, (2) water points should be adapted to target species self protection, (3) fencing can prevent undesirable visitors (particularly predators), and (4) water requirements increase in the harsh moments of the dry season.     

野生鸟类传染性疾病研究进展

由于具有独特的飞行能力和极强的地理扩散能力,鸟类活动为某些传染性疾病的快速传播和扩散带来了潜在风险.自20世纪以来,以禽霍乱、禽波特淋菌病、西尼罗河热、禽流感等为代表的鸟类疾病频繁暴发,导致为数众多的野生鸟类、家禽甚至人类死亡,给社会造成巨大的经济损失.因此,有关鸟类传染性疾病的研究已引起了国内外学者的广泛关注.从鸟类传染性疾病的生态学特征、疾病对鸟类与人类社会的影响、鸟类对疾病的传播、鸟类疾病的监测、预警和防控等方面对野生鸟类的传染性疾病研究进展进行了综述.不同疾病导致的鸟类死亡量、易感物种数量、暴发频率和地理扩散等特征差异显著.20世纪以来,疾病已成为全球生物多样性的七大威胁因子之一.疾病可能造成鸟类大量死亡,从而对鸟类种群,特别是濒危鸟类种群造成严重影响.其中,人畜共患病还会导致家禽家畜甚至人类的死亡,从而对社会产生严重的影响.野生鸟类作为多种疾病传播的媒介,其移动和迁徙可能会导致疾病的传播与扩散.开展全面的监测活动和建立疾病预警体系,对于疾病的防控具有重要意义.