Turnover of15N-labelled urea in various rotations of groundnut sorghum and pigeon pea crops

Summary A field experiment on N turnover in rotations of groundnut, sorghum and pigeonpea crops was conducted in an Indian Alfisol during 1978–80.¹⁵N-labelled urea N was applied @ 40 kg ha^–1 in 1978. In the first year, the groundnut utilized 19.5% of the applied labelled N, sorghum 25.5%, and pigeon pea 10.3%. More fertilizer N was removed through weeding than by crop uptake in sorghum and pigeon pea. The fertilizer N left behind in soil upto 40 cm depth was 44.4% in groundnut plots, 35.1% in sorghum plots and 40.1% in pigeon pea plots.The uptake in 1979 of the residual fertilizer N in the soil was 8.9% in sorghum, 8.3% in groundnut and 2.8% in pigeon pea. In 1980, it declined to less than 2% for pigeon pea and groundnut and to about 4% for sorghum.A balance sheet drawn at the end of each rotation showed that about 51.3% of the applied labelled N was accounted for in groundnut-sorghum-pigeon pea rotation, 70.9% in sorghumpigeon pea-groundnut, and 43.5% in pigeon pea-groundnut-sorghum.     

Effects of land preparation and maize cultivar on efficiency of N-fertilizer applied at different times and by different methods in maize—mungbean association using15N

Summary A field experiment was conducted using¹⁵N-labelled urea on a Reddish Brown Lateritic (Peleustult) soil. Growing two crops on flat land and on soil ridges of 15 cm height produced similar comparative effects from fertilizer on maize. However, fertilizer applied by broadcasting on maize with a 50 cm effective band followed by incorporating was more useful to mungbean than that applied by banding below the cereal seed rows when crops were grown on flat land. The reverse was observed when crops were grown on ridges. It was deduced that the maize cultivar was not likely to affect comparative efficiencies of fertilizer. For fertilizer application at sowing, broadcasting in 50 cm maize effective band followed by incorporating was slightly superior to banding below maize seed rows. Side-dressing of fertilizer to maize at 4 weeks after sowing was superior to application at sowing. Evenly-split application, at sowing and at 4 weeks after sowing, was either only slightly superior or comparable to non-split application by banding below maize seed rows at sowing, depending on placement method of the first application. Soil moisture status as a possible factor rendering discrepancy in the comparative efficiencies obtained by different authors is discussed.     

微波辅助提取木豆根中染料木素工艺

以木豆根为原料,利用微波辅助提取技术进行提取,在单因素实验的基础上对提取条件进行了考察,根据BBD(Box-Behnken design)实验设计原理,采用3因素3水平的响应面分析法,以木豆根中主要异黄酮染料木素(genistein)为指标,对提取过程进行优化,得到最佳工艺参数为：提取温度为68℃,固液比为32∶1 mL·g^-1,乙醇浓度为78%,提取功率700 W,提取时间15 min。在最佳提取条件下染料木素的提取率可达到0.465±0.032 mg·g^-1。本研究对于微波提取技术的应用及木豆根的开发和利用都具有显著的意义。     

Chitin-supplemented formulations improve biocontrol and plant growth promoting efficiency of Bacillus subtilis AF 1

Formulations of a chitinolytic biocontrol and a plant growth promoting Bacillus subtilis AF 1 were prepared in peat, in peat supplemented with either 0.5% chitin or Aspergillus niger mycelium, or in spent compost obtained from Agaricus bisporus cultivation and were evaluated for biocontrol of two fungal pathogens and plant growth promoting activities on pigeon pea and groundnut. A steady increase in cell numbers of introduced B. subtilis AF 1 was observed in all the formulations at 30 degrees C. The increase in cell numbers was about 5.0 log units. Peat or spent compost inoculated with physiologically active and dormant states of B. subtilis AF 1 showed different time period requirements to attain maximum cell numbers. The presence of chitin or A. niger (in peat) or A. bisporus (in spent compost) as supplement in the carrier material improved the multiplication of B. subtilis AF 1. When used as seed treatments, formulations of AF 1 in peat supplemented with chitin or chitin-containing materials showed better control of A. niger (causing crown rot of groundnut) and Fusarium udum (causing wilt of pigeon pea) than AF 1 culture alone, in both groundnut and pigeon pea. Bacillus subtilis AF 1 formulations promoted seed germination and biomass of both groundnut and pigeon pea even under pathogen pressure. Survival of AF 1 on fresh culture-treated and formulation product-treated plants was similar in pathogen-infested soil.     

Polyphagy and primary host plants: oviposition preference versus larval performance in the lepidopteran pest Helicoverpa armigera

Oviposition preference and several measures of offspring performance of Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) were investigated on a subset of its host plants that were selected for their reputed importance in the field in Australia. They included cotton, pigeon pea, sweet corn, mungbean, bean and common sowthistle. Plants were at their flowering stage when presented to gravid female moths. Flowering pigeon pea evoked far more oviposition than did the other plant species and was the most preferred plant for neonate larval feeding. It also supported development of the most robust larvae and pupae, and these produced the most fecund moths. Common sowthistle and cotton were equally suitable to pigeon pea for larval development, but these two species received far fewer H. armigera eggs than did pigeon pea. Mungbean also received relatively few eggs, but it did support intermediate measures of larval growth and survival. Fewest eggs were laid on bean and it was also the least beneficial in terms of larval growth. Among the host plant species tested, only flowering pigeon pea supported a good relationship between oviposition preference of H. armigera and its subsequent offspring performance. Australian H. armigera moths are thus consistent with Indian H. armigera moths in their ovipositional behaviour and larval performance relative to pigeon pea. The results suggest that the host recognition and acceptance behaviour of this species is fixed across its geographical distribution and they support the theory that pigeon pea might be one of the primary host plants of this insect. These insights, together with published results on the sensory responses of the females to volatiles derived from the different host plant species tested here, help to explain why some plant species are primary targets for the ovipositing moths whereas others are only secondary targets of this polyphagous pest, which has a notoriously broad host range. Handling Editor: Joseph Dickens     

Influence of Auxin and Gibberellin on in Vivo Protein Synthesis during Early Pea Fruit Growth

Developing pea fruits (Pisum sativum L.) offer a unique opportunity to study growth and development in a tissue that is responsive to both gibberellins (GAs) and auxin (4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid[4-CI-IAA]). To begin a molecular analysis of the interaction of GAs and auxins in pea fruit development, in vivo labeling with [35S]methionine coupled with two-dimensional gel electrophoresis were used to characterize de novo synthesis of proteins during gibberellic acid (GA3)-, 4-CI-indoleacetic acid-, and seed-induced pea pericarp growth. The most significant and reproducible polypeptide changes were observed between molecular weights of 20 and 60. Comparing about 250 de novo synthesized proteins revealed that seed removal changed the pattern substantially. We identified one class of polypeptides that was uniquely seed induced and five classes that were affected by hormone treatment. The latter included 4-CI-IAA-induced, GA3-induced, GA3- and 4-CI-IAA-induced, 4-CI-IAA-repressed, and GA3- and 4-CI-IAA-repressed polypeptides. Similar patterns of protein expression were associated with both hormone treatments; however, changes unique to GA3 or 4-CI-IAA treatment also indicate that the effects of GA3 and 4-CI-IAA on this process are not equivalent. In general, application of 4-CI-IAA plus GA3 replaced the seed effects on pericarp protein synthesis, supporting our hypothesis that both hormones are involved in pea pericarp development.     

Soil properties and crop performance on a kaolinitic Alfisol after 15 years of fallow and continuous cultivation

A long-term field experiment was established on a kaolinitic Alfisol in Ibadan, Nigeria, in 1972. The land was cleared manually from secondary forest and used for (i) continuous no-till cropping with maize (Zea mays L.) and maize/cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) intercropping, (ii) planted fallow of guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.), leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala de Wit), and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan Millsp.), and (iii) natural bush regrowth in a randomized complete block design with three replications. At the end of 15 years, the fallow plots were cleared manually and cropped with maize for three years. The chemical and physical soil properties and crop performance of the newly-cleared plots were compared with those under 15 years of continuous cultivation. A total of 26 woody species were identified on the bush regrowth plots. Above-ground biomass accumulation of the bush plots was 157 Mg ha^-1 containing 1316 kg N ha^-1. Guinea grass, leucaena and natural bush regrowth plots had comparable organic C concentrations (approximately 20 g kg^-1) in the surface soil (0 to 10 cm) after 15 years. The organic C concentration in the surface soil under pigeon pea was the lowest (9.5 g kg^-1) among the four fallow treatments. Soil under 15 years of continuous no-till maize with and without residue mulch, respectively, contained approximately half (10 g kg^-1) and a quarter (5.7 g kg^-1) of the organic C under natural bush or guinea grass fallow. The levels of exchangeable Ca, K, Mg and effective cation exchange capacity (ECEC) were lower in the soils under continuous cultivation than in those under natural bush and planted fallow. Soil acidification occurred in soils under continuous cropping as depicted by the lower pH values and greater exchangeable Al and Mn concentrations compared to the fallow plots. Grain yield of maize (3 to 5 Mg ha^-1) without fertilizer application in the plots newly cleared from natural bush, guinea grass and leucaena fallow was comparable with that of continuous no-till maize with residue mulch and chemical fertilizer (N, P, K, Mg, Zn) applications. Among the four fallow treatments, maize grain and stover yields were the lowest in plots cleared from pigeon pea fallow.     

Senescence of detached leaves in pigeon pea and chick pea: Regulation by developing pods

The senescence rate of the subtending leaves in deflowered and control plants of pigeon pea ICajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. cv., Prabhat] and chick pea ( Cicer arietinum L. cv. JG 62) were examined during the course of natural and induced senescence, at several stages of pod growth. The leaves from the top 5 nodes on the main axis in pigeon pea and the top 8 nodes on the main axis in chick pea were used throughout the experiments. The natural senescence was characterized in leaves taken directly from the field-growing plants. For the study of induced senescence, the leaves were excised from both control and deflowered plants at various stages of pod growth and placed in test tubes containing water under dark conditions. Senescence was assessed in terms of peroxidase activity and contents of tola] chlorophyll, soluble amino acids and total protein. During natural ageing in the field, the leaves from deflowered plants exhibited delayed senescence in both the species. In contrast, the rate of ageing during induced senescence was higher in the leaves of deflowered plants than in the controls. Although of the same chronological age when excised for induced senescence, the leaves of deflowered plants were evideatly metabolically different from the controls, due to the fact that deflowered plants did not support the development of pods. This difference probably determined the subsequent rate of induced senescence.     

高产水稻品种及种植方式对稻田甲烷排放的影响

采用大田试验研究了不同水稻品种（早稻：超级稻“陆两优996”和常规稻“创丰1号”;晚稻：T优259）及不同种植方式（直播和移栽）对稻田甲烷排放通量的影响.结果表明：早稻晒田前甲烷排放量占排放总量的52%～73%,排水晒田减少了甲烷排放通量;晚稻生育前期甲烷排放量占生长期间甲烷排放总量的70%.早稻直播方式的甲烷排放通量均值低于移栽种植方式,但甲烷排放总量大于移栽种植方式;晚稻直播方式的甲烷排放通量均值与排放总量都大于移栽种植方式.早、晚稻直播方式的单位稻谷甲烷排放量与移栽种植方式间均存在显著差异,早稻中超级稻和常规稻直播方式的单位稻谷甲烷排放量分别比移栽方式高4.84和3.48 g·kg^-1稻谷,常规稻的甲烷排放量高于超级稻;晚稻直播方式的单位稻谷甲烷排放量比移栽方式高6.67 g·kg^-1稻谷.相同面积、相同时间不同种植方式的稻田甲烷排放量、单位经济产量甲烷排放量表现为：早稻：常规稻直播＞常规稻移栽＞超级稻直播＞超级稻移栽;晚稻：直播＞移栽.     

Suitability of leguminous cover crop pollens as food source for the green lacewing Chrysoperla externa (Hagen) (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae)

Diversification of crops with species that provide suitable pollen for predators may reduce pest population on crops by enhancing predator effectiveness. In this paper we evaluated the suitability of leguminous cover crop pollens to the predatory green lacewing Chrysoperla externa (Hagen). The predator is commonly found in coffee agroecosystems and the plant species tested were pigeon pea and sunn hemp, which are used in organic coffee systems. Newly emerged females and males of C. externa were reared on diets containing pollen of pigeon pea, sunn hemp, or castor bean, used as a control. The reproductive success of C. externa was evaluated when females fed the pollen species and when honey was added to the diets, to verify the predator need for an extra carbohydrate source. Similar intrinsic growth rates were found for females fed on pigeon pea pollen and on sunn hemp pollen but these rates increased significantly when honey was added to the diets. Females fed with pigeon pea pollen plus honey and with sunn hemp pollen plus honey had higher intrinsic growth rates than those fed with castor bean pollen plus honey. Females fed on castor bean pollen only or on honey only, did not oviposit. Leguminous pollen species were equally suitable for C. externa especially when they were complemented with honey. The results suggest that to successfully enhance predator effectiveness, organic coffee plantation should be diversified with plant providing pollen in combination with plant providing nectar.     

Feeding preferences and related types of behaviour of Neomegalotomus parvus

Laboratory studies with Neomegalotomus parvus(Westwood) (Hemiptera: Alydidae) with one nymph per Petri dish in multiple-choice tests indicated that seeds of pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan(L.) Mills.], lablab (Dolichos lablabL.), and soybean [Glycine max(L.) Merrill] were visited before seeds of common bean (Phaseolus vulgarisL.) and rice (Oryza sativaL.). The percentage of individuals engaging in dabbing/antennation resulting in probing, and percentage probing resulting in feeding, were higher on common bean (97%) and pigeon pea (87%) seeds than on lablab (55%), soybean (50%), or rice (5%) seeds. No significant differences were found in preference (number of flanges) among pigeon pea, common bean, and lablab, and preference (insects on foods) varied throughout the assessment period (5 d). In tests using 10 nymphs per dish, pigeon pea was the preferred food (number of flanges and insects on plants) throughout the period (5 d). In no-choice tests, the average duration of a feeding session and the longest feeding session were greater on lablab and common bean than on pigeon pea, soybean, or rice seeds. The number of feeding sessions was greater on seeds of common bean, pigeon pea, and soybean than on those of lablab or rice. Laboratory tests with N. parvusadults indicated that pigeon pea seeds were located faster, followed by common bean, soybean, and rice. When pods were tested, dabbing/antennation time was shorter on pigeon pea than on soybean, and probing time was longer on soybean than on pigeon pea or common bean. On pigeon pea, 100% of the insects probed the host, while on common bean and soybean pods, and on rice panicles, these values dropped to 71.8%, 46.0%, and 10.5%, respectively. Adults showed similar feeding times on pigeon pea, common bean, and soybean pods, but did not feed on rice panicles. Electronmicroscopical analysis showed the presence of two apical lobes with 12 peg sensilla on the labial tip. Sensillum tips were stained with silver nitrate solution, indicating a permeability of the cuticle and, therefore, their function as taste receptors.     

Nodulation, Nitrogen Fixation, and Hydrogen Oxidation by Pigeon Pea Bradyrhizobium spp. in Symbiotic Association with Pigeon Pea, Cowpea, and Soybean

The pigeon pea strains of Bradyrhizobium CC-1, CC-8, UASGR(S), and F4 were evaluated for nodulation, effectiveness for N₂ fixation, and H₂ oxidation with homologous and nonhomologous host plants. Strain CC-1 nodulated Macroptilium atropurpureum, Vigna unguiculata, Glycine max, and G. soja but did not nodulate Pisum sativum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Trigonella foenum-graecum, and Trifolium repens. Strain F4 nodulated G. max cv. Peking and PI 434937 (Malayan), but the symbioses formed were poor. Similarly, G. max cv. Peking, cv. Bragg, PI 434937, PR 13-28-2-8-7, and HM-1 were nodulated by strain CC-1, and symbioses were also poor. G. max cv. Williams and cv. Clark were not nodulated. H₂ uptake activity was expressed with pigeon pea and cowpea, but not with soybean. G. max cv. Bragg grown in Bangalore, India, in local soil not previously exposed to Bradyrhizobium japonicum formed nodules with indigenous Bradyrhizobium spp. Six randomly chosen isolates, each originating from a different nodule, formed effective symbioses with pigeon pea host ICPL-407, nodulated PR 13-28-2-8-7 soybean forming moderately effective symbioses, and did not nodulate Williams soybean. These results indicate the six isolates to be pigeon pea strains although they originated from soybean nodules. Host-determined nodulation of soybean by pigeon pea Bradyrhizobium spp. may depend upon the ancestral backgrounds of the cultivars. The poor symbioses formed by the pigeon pea strains with soybean indicate that this crop should be inoculated with B. japonicum for its cultivation in soils containing only pigeon pea Bradyrhizobium spp.     

Effects of crop residues,soil type and temperature on emergence and early growth of wheat

Summary Two controlled environment experiments were conducted to examine the germination and early growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Songlen) growing under crop residues of rape, sorghum, field pea and wheat. Additional treamments also included were soil type (Lithic Vertic Ustochrept and Plinthustalf) and temperature (8°C and 24°C to simulate winter and autumn sowing conditions). At low temperature, wheat and sorghum residues produced the most adverse effects on germination with all residues reducing emergence at high temperatures. Shoot lengths were also reduced by most residues at high temperatures whilst root lengths and shoot and root dry weights were unaffected by residue treatments. These results suggest major phytotoxic effects of residues during early growth (up to 14 days after sowing) with, in general, few interactions with soil type or temperature.     

Effects of different irrigation modes on winter wheat grain yield and water- and nitrogen use efficiency

Taking the widely planted winter wheat cultivar Tainong 18 as test material, a field experiment was conducted to study the effects of different irrigation modes on the winter wheat grain yield and water- and nitrogen use efficiency in drier year (2009-2010) in Tai' an City of Shandong Province, China. Five treatments were installed, i. e., irrigation before sowing (CK), irrigation before sowing and at jointing stage (W1), irrigation before sowing and at jointing stages and at over-wintering stage with alternative irrigation at milking stage (W2), irrigation before sowing and at jointing and flowering stages (optimized traditional irrigation mode, W3), and irrigation before sowing and at over-wintering, jointing, and milking stages (traditional irrigation mode, W4). The irrigation amount was 600 m3 hm(-2) one time. Under the condition of 119.7 mm precipitation in the winter wheat growth season, no significant difference was observed in the grain yield between treatments W2 and W4, but the water use efficiency was significantly higher in W2 than in W4. Comparing with treatment W3, treatments W2 and W4 had obviously higher grain yield, but the water use efficiency had no significant difference. The partial factor productivity from N fertilization was the highest in W2 and W4, and the NO3(-)-N accumulation amount in 0-100 cm soil layer at harvest was significantly higher in W2 than in W3 and W4, suggesting that W2 could reduce NO3(-)-N leaching loss. Under the conditions of our experiment, irrigation before sowing and jointing stages and at over-wintering stage with alternative irrigation at milking stage was the optimal irrigation mode in considering both the grain yield and the water- and nitrogen use efficiency.     

Characterization of five fungal endophytes producing Cajaninstilbene acid isolated from pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp

Five fungal endophytes (K4, K5, K6, K9, K14) producing Cajaninstilbene acid (CSA, 3-hydroxy-4-prenyl-5-methoxystilbene-2-carboxylic acid) were isolated from the roots of pigeon pea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.]. CSA is responsible for the prominent pharmacological activities in pigeon pea. The amount of CSA in culture solution varied among the five fungal endophytes. K4 produced the highest levels of CSA (1037.13 μg/L) among the endophytes tested after incubation for five days. Both morphological characteristics and molecular methods were used for species identification of fungal endophytes. The five endophytic isolates were characterized by analyzing the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) rRNA and β-tubulin genes. The K4, K5, K9 and K14 strains isolated from pigeon pea roots were found to be closely related to the species Fusarium oxysporum. K6 was identified as Neonectria macrodidym. The present study is the first report on the isolation and identification of fungal endophytes producing CSA in pigeon pea. The study also provides a scientific base for large scale production of CSA.     

Creation of a non-mycorrhizal control for a bioassay of AM effectiveness

and application times 2 weeks before sowing, at sowing and 1 week after sowing were investigated. Various Finnish field soils with their indigenous AMF communities were used. The main test plant species was oil-seed flax (Linum usitatissimum). In a comparison of sampling time, barley (Hordeum vulgare) was also used and phytotoxicity was studied additionally on red clover (Trifolium pratense), barley and pea (Pisum sativum) mutants. Sampling in the spring after the thaw resulted in the highest infectivity and AM response and the clearest differences between soils with varying AM potential. No evidence of temporal variation in benomyl effectiveness on mycorrhiza was found. The dose of benomyl sufficient to create a control with suppressed mycorrhization was 20 mg per kg soil at target moisture incorporated in the soil. Plant growth reduction in irradiated soil was observed with benomyl application 1 week after sowing only with flax and red clover. The most effective application time for benomyl was immediately before sowing.     

Improving fertiliser efficiency on calcareous and alkaline soils with fluid sources of P,N and Zn

Alkaline calcareous or sodic soils represent an important proportion of the world's arable soils and are important for cereal production. For calcareous soils in general, despite high applications of P fertiliser for many years, P deficiency in cereals is common. Field experiments were conducted to test the relative ability of granular (e.g. DAP, MAP and TSP) and fluid fertilisers to supply P to wheat on grey calcareous and red brown calcareous sandy loam soils (Calcixerollic xerochrepts). A pot experiment was also conducted with these soils and with two non-calcareous alkaline soils to investigate the effects of placement on the efficiency of fertiliser performance. In 1998, fluid and granular sources of P, N and Zn were compared in the field by banding below the seed at sowing. In 1999, MAP applied as granular, and technical grade MAP applied as fluid, were compared as sources of P in rate response experiments. First year results showed that fluid sources of P, N and Zn produced significantly more grain than the granular product. In the following year, fluid fertilisers were found to produce significantly higher response curves for shoot dry weight, grain yield and P uptake in grain. At a commercial rate of 8 kg P ha^–1, fluid fertiliser produced between 22% and 27% more grain than the granular product. Soil moisture and fertiliser placement effects are implicated in the higher efficiency of fluid fertilisers.     

Strain selection for pigeon pea Rhizobium under greenhouse conditions

Pigeon pea obtains N for growth by N₂ fixation although yield generally is not improved by either the inoculation of Rhizobium or by the application of N fertilizer in Puerto Rico. Sixteen strains ofRhizobium spp., different in geographical origin, were tested for N-fixing effectiveness, determined from comparisons with uninoculated controls, N controls and the standard strain 176A22. Inoculated treatments showed significant differences in nodulation, plant dry weight and %N. Several strain x plant combinations had higher N content than the N treatment, reflecting the ubiquity of effective strains and the possible lack of response of pigeon pea to inoculation or N fertilization. Strains superior in N₂ fixation were selected for testing for symbiotic effectiveness under field conditions.     

木豆叶总黄酮测定方法的比较研究

采用比色法测定木豆叶中的总黄酮含量。对三氯化铝比色法、硼酸—柠檬酸比色法和硝酸铝比色法3种测定方法进行比较,确定了硝酸铝比色法为木豆叶总黄酮的最佳测定方法,该方法稳定性、精密度和重现性好,其RSD分别为2.1%、0.9%和2.3%,应用该方法测定木豆叶总黄酮含量为15.65 mg·g^-1 DW。本方法适用于木豆叶或其制剂中总黄酮的质量分析检验,为木豆叶中黄酮的研究开发提供了质控依据。     

The impact of carbofuran soil application on growth and mycorrhizal colonization by Glomus clarum of groundnut

The influence of soil application of carbofuran on the growth response of groundnut, and both mycorrhizal colonization and sporulation of Glomus clarum was studied in a pot culture experiment. Carbofuran application with or without mycorrhizal inoculation increased the height of the potted plants measured 8 weeks after sowing. Mycorrhizal plants were significantly taller than nonmycorrhizal plants at the final harvest time (14 weeks). Carbofuran, at the recommmended field dose of up to 2 kg/ha, greatly increased shoot dry matter and pod yield in mycorrhizal groundnut. Colonization and sporulation by this VAM fungus were also enhanced significantly at these dose levels. The application of carbofuran at 5 kg/ha inhibited both growth and mycorrhizal status of groundnut.