Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 1. Contribution to rural income

It is generally assumed that the sustained extraction and processing of non-timber forest products by local people can enhance their cash income and provide an alternative to tropical deforestation. However, the degree to which such products actually or may potentially contribute to rural incomes is poorly documented. We present the results of a study that seeks to evaluate the reliance of an indigenous group on non-timber forest products for cash income. Furthermore, we examine the effect of household variables on the cash income derived from collection and the price appreciation of non-timber forest products. These products account for nearly half of the gross annual income earned by the Soliga households in the Biligiri Rangan Hills of the Karnataka State in South India. Econometric models indicate that although income derived from the extraction of non-timber forest products is high in proportion to the time devoted to the collection, the extraction is not a preferred vocation. Furthermore, price appreciation for non-timber forest products varies for different products and, overall, the Soligas obtain essentially minimal wages for their extractive efforts. We discuss possible mechanisms for enhancement of Soligas’ income and the involvement of Soligas in conservation efforts.     

The economic value and sustainable harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest: Assumptions,hypotheses, and methods

Recent studies of non-timber products from tropical rain forests have emphasized the economic value of these products and the sustainability of present harvests. Many of these studies rely upon a set of untested assumptions about the effects of harvesting upon the forest and the economic value of non-timber forest products in both the marketplace and in the daily life of rural people. These assumptions were formulated as a series of hypotheses during the workshop held in the Regional Community Forestry Training Center, Kesetsart University, Bangkok, in May 1992. The six hypotheses developed by workshop participants will be used to guide future research. As the hypotheses are tested, the data will be used to create a more realistic assessment of the sustainability and economic value of extraction of non-timber products from tropical forests.     

Implications of Livelihood Dependence on Non-Timber Products in Peruvian Amazonia

The present and future well-being of the world’s forest dwelling populations depends on their ability to gain livelihood resources from their immediate environment. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers that does not compromise the resource base. Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets, non-timber forest products can only ever represent a safety-net activity and a supplementary income source. Others argue that resource availability, in terms of the diversity and productivity of the forest, is the key parameter in realizing a contribution of forest products to well-being. This paper examines the scope and heterogeneity of forest product use to reveal whether resource availability necessarily provides the context for significant contributions to well-being of forest dwellers. We present data from an area of tropical rainforest, close to Iquitos in Peru, which was previously shown to have high potential value. We find, through a census survey of households within a forest reserve area, that non-timber forest products provide only a relatively small portion of income and that only a small proportion of available products are actually commercialized, despite apparent market availability. We show that the low rates of commercialization can be explained by unequal access capital assets used for extraction, to natural resources themselves, and to product markets. They are also explained by the concentration of capital-poor households on subsistence gathering activities. The value of destructive uses of forests, both logging and agriculture, remain higher than returns from non-timber products. This research demonstrates that although non-timber forest products are an important livelihood source, market integration and commercialization is not everywhere an appropriate or realistic strategy.     

Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical forest products on plant populations

Thousands of plant and animal species in tropical regions provide a variety of non-timber products that are used by billions of people all over the world. Conservation and long term utilization of these species require that they be harvested on a sustainable basis. However, the extent to which non-timber forest products are exploited without adverse effects on natural populations is not known. There is in fact considerable evidence for non-sustainable harvest of non-timber products. We outline methods that may be used to assess the impact of harvest on population processes of the species that are being harvested. We present sampling protocols for rapid assessment as well as long term monitoring of populations. We briefly consider the limitations of these methods and suggest that the monitoring protocols we outline should be part of an overall management plan designed to extract and utilize non-timber tropical forest products on a long term basis.     

Conflict of use for multi-purpose tree species in the state of Pará, eastern Amazonia, Brazil

Although diversified forest management is promoted as a strategy aimed at slowing tropical deforestation, little is known about the viability of integrating timber and non-timber forest products in the same forest management plans. In this study we offer an initial characterization of multi-purpose tree species in the State of Pará, the principal Amazonian logging region. We identify the species used for both timber and non-timber extraction, and classify these according to their commercial value. We relate multi-purpose species to their ecological traits, the type of non-timber forest use and the fraction of the tree harvested. Although a high number of species present a potential conflict of use, this conflict is only relevant in four of them: D. odorata, T. serratifolia, T. impetiginosa and H. courbaril. Nevertheless, the nature and relevance of this conflict will ultimately depend on the importance that the non-timber use has for the livelihoods of forest-dependant people, the commercial value and the ecological resilience of these species.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on regeneration,population structure,and species composition

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has recently gained considerable attention as a means to enhance rural incomes and conserve tropical forests. However, there is little information on the amounts of products collected per unit area and the impact of extraction on forest structure and composition. In this paper we estimate the quantities of selected products gathered by the Soligas, the indigenous people in the Biligiri Rangaswamy Temple (BRT) sanctuary in Karnataka, India, and examine the effect of extraction on forest structure and composition. Two sites, distant (DS) and proximal (PS), were identified based on the proximity to a Soliga settlement. The frequency of different size classes indicates that regeneration overall is poor in the area. The two sites show differences in species richness, basal area, and tree mortality. Furthermore, non-timber forest product species show a greater deficit of small size classes than the timber forest species, suggesting that regeneration is affected by collection of seeds and fruits from non-timber forest product species. Regeneration, however, may also be affected by other anthropogenic pressures such as fire, grazing and competition with weeds.     

Tree population studies in low-diversity forests, Guyana. II. Assessments on the distribution and abundance of non-timber forest products

Comparisons between two forest localities were undertaken to assess the potential availability of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) within the low-diversity forests of Guyana. Information on the abundance and distribution of tree species, and local and national ethnobotanical surveys were used classifying species into five categories (timber, construction, technological, edible and medicinal). A total of 152 species were recorded from the two localities; covering 236 different uses, 33 known commercial timber species and 106 species with potential non-timber product utilization. The most important plant families with the highest number of uses at both localities were Leguminosae (sub-families Caesalpinioideae and Mimosoideae), Arecaceae, Bombacaceae and Chrysobalanaceae, although these families were not the most abundant families at both localities. At both forest localities eight tree species represented over 50% of all the trees. At Kurupukari three species, each with more than three identified NTFPs, represented over 20% of the trees.Potential utilization of NTFPs are discussed in accordance with species richness, tree density, the number of different uses per species, and the percentage of trees represented by each utilizable species. Considering the constraints on the future potential commercialization of NTFPs, two scenarios for the extraction of NTFPs are discussed. Within relatively species-rich forest types the high diversity of products provides potentially viable multiple-species extractionism. In contrast, in low-diversity forest types, typical of the Guiana Shield, one or two NTFP species frequently represent over 50% of the canopy trees, and therefore substantially increase the potential sustainable extraction for single-species harvesting. It is suggested that these low-diversity types of forest are prioritized for conservation on the basis of ensuring future utilization, refuge, of non-timber forest products.     

Valuation and sustainable use of tropical rainforest

Studies of the extraction of non-timber forest products have shown that the standing rainforest may be more valuable than alternatives involving deforestation

Although this article is about placing a value on rainforest, it begins by stressing the importance and value of rainforest for its environmental function, particularly for the control of world climate patterns. It is then shown how rainforest peoples depend on the plants around them and in some study areas were found to have a use for every tree on the one-hectare plots. It is therefore not surprising that the rainforest can contain many non-timber forest products (NTFPs) of commercial potential, some of which such as rubber latex and Brazil nuts have been in the market economy for many years. A summary is given of various attempts to place a value on rainforest for its NTFPs. Each of the three studies showed that the extraction of these products could be more valuable than alternative land uses involving deforestation. Various rainforest countries such as Brazil, Guatemala, and Indonesia have set up extractive reserves where local people are allowed to extract NTFPs but not to clear cut the forest. Extractive reserves have slowed down deforestation in some areas, but only provide a meagre subsistence existence for their inhabitants, so while they are useful, they are not a panacea that will solve all the conservation problems of tropical rainforest.     

Interdisciplinary research towards management of non-timber forest resources in lowland rain forests of Sri Lanka

Lowland and mid-elevational rainforests of Sri Lanka harbor a relict, endemic-rich flora which is also rich in timber and non-timber forest resources. These forests supply nearly half the total wood requirements of the country and are dwindling rapidly; management of the forests to conserve the biological richness and maintain environmental services is therefore a difficult proposition. This predicament is further compounded by the dependency of rural people on a range of non-timber forest resources for their subsistence and income. A forestry master plan recently prepared for Sri Lanka has not given adequate recognition to the important role played by non-timber forest resources in rural livelihood. This oversight is primarily due to the lack of quantitative information to justify the role of non-timber forest resources in forestry sector development. Forestry policies that ignore these resources often anger local people, leading the villagers to vent their disapproval through destructive actions such as burning timber plantations. Long-term interdisciplinary research in ecology, reproductive and soil biology, ethnobiology, silviculture, rural sociology and resource economics in progress at Sinharaja attempts to address these questions of sustainable development of forest resources in an integrated mode. While research oriented toward conservation investigates both short- and long-term ecosystem dynamics in natural and modified forest stands, utilization-oriented research probes the impact of increased human disturbance, particularly the impact of rural communities on dwindling forest resources, as well as the effect of forest conservation on rural livelihood. These studies continue to seek alternative methods of forest management which are socially acceptable, economically viable, and ecologically sustainable for multiple uses. These methods will assist in the refinement of current forest policies, forestry planning, and the implementation of new policies and plans in Sri Lanka.     

Swiddeners' Household Strategies for the Wild Harvest of Rauvolfia serpentina and Amorphophallus bulbifer in a Karen Swidden System in the Bago Mountains,Myanmar

Economic Botany - Swiddeners in the Bago Mountains, Myanmar collect two economically important non-timber forest products (NTFPs)—Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz (Apocynaceae) roots...     

A Political Ecology of Picking: Non-Timber Forest Products in the Pacific Northwest

Using a political ecology framework, this research analyzes the recent entry of recent Latino and Southeast Asian immigrants into the harvesting of non-timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. Using both permit data and interviewing, it suggests that a world market for these products, government policy, and environmental conditions have the potential for driving harvests to unsustainable levels and exacerbating incipient conflicts.     

Optimal harvesting strategies for timber and non-timber forest products in tropical ecosystems

Harvesting wild plants for non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can be ecologically sustainable–without long-term consequences to the dynamics of targeted and associated species–but it may not be economically satisfying because it fails to provide enough revenues for local people over time. In several cases, the same species can be harvested for NTFP and also logged for timber. Three decades of studies on the sustainability of NTFP harvest for local people’s livelihood have failed to successfully integrate these socio-economic and ecological factors. We apply optimal control theory to investigate optimal strategies for the combinations of non-lethal (e.g., NTFP) and lethal (e.g., timber) harvest that minimize the cost of harvesting while maximizing the benefits (revenue) that accrue to harvesters and the conservation value of harvested ecosystems. Optimal harvesting strategies include starting with non-lethal NTFP harvest and postponing lethal timber harvesting to begin after a few years. We clearly demonstrate that slow growth species have lower optimal harvesting rates, objective functional values and profits than fast growth species. However, contrary to expectation, the effect of species lifespan on optimal harvesting rates was weak suggesting that life history is a better indicator of species resilience to harvest than lifespan. Overall, lethal or nonlethal harvest rates must be <40 % to ensure optimality. This optimal rate is lower than commonly reported sustainable harvest rates for non-timber forest products.     

Valuing the rain forest: Economic strategies by small-scale forest extractivists in the Amazon estuary

The current interest in non-timber forest products as an economic option for the Brazilian Amazon represents a radical departure from the policies that have guided development in the region during recent decades. Despite this interest, little is currently known about the forms of resource management or economic strategies practiced by populations dependent on such resources. In this study, we measured the annual income and expenditures of ten households on Combu Island, located in the Amazon estuary near the major port city of Belém; in addition, we documented local uses and management of natural resources on the island Average annual income per household was found to be over U.S. $4000, derived primarily from the harvest and sale of non-timber forest products. The results of this study show that the combination of proximity to a major market and appropriate resource management can lead to high and apparently sustainable economic returns.Formerly Senior Researcher at the Museu Paraense Emílio GoeldiFormerly Student Fellow at the Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi     

The effect of income on the extraction of non-timber tropical forest products: Model,hypotheses, and preliminary findings from the Sumu Indians of Nicaragua

We use microeconomic theory to frame hypotheses about the effects of income on the use of non-timber rain forest products. We hypothesize that an increase in income: (a) encourages foraging specialization, resulting in the extraction of fewer goods; (b) increases the share of household income from occupations besides foraging; (c) produces a yearly value from the extraction of nontimber forest goods of about $50 per hectare; and (d) produces depletion of forest goods entering commercial channels and sustainable extraction of goods facing cheaper industrial substitutes. To examine these hypotheses we present worldwide ethnographic information and preliminary findings from field work carried out among the Sumu Indians of Nicaragua. Field work suggests that higher income produces: (a) foraging specialization with animals rather than with plants; (b) a decline in the economic importance of forest goods in household income; (c) and a rise in the value of non-timber goods removed from the forest to about $35/ha/year. We did not have time to test hypothesis d.     

Extraction of non-timber forest products in the Forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills,India. 3. Productivity,extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of amla phyllanthus emblica, (Euphorbiaceae)

Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) depends upon harvesting a small fraction of the total productivity. Over-exploitation can lead to a loss of biodiversity, but a low level of extraction, without value addition at the point of origin, is usually not economically feasible for extractors. Extraction and productivity levels per unit area for most non-timber forest products are unknown, nor do we have much information about value addition at various points in the marketing channels. Here we determine extraction and productivity levels for Amla trees (Phyllanthus emblica), which yield fruits that are used for a wide variety of purposes in preparation of various foods, beverages and medicines. We also present preliminary data on the price appreciation of the fruit for one of the processed products. We have determined that the current level of extraction, 60-80% of all fruits at the population level, may have a negative effect on new recruitment. We present a model for value addition that has the potential to enhance income and reduce the level of extraction. This model is currently being implemented by the Soliga community with the assistance of a non-governmental organization.     

Bamboo-infoline: A database for North Bengal Bamboo's

Bamboo, the "Green Gold", included in the non-timber forest products has both ecological and economic importance. Here is an attempt to describe a database named "Bambooinfoline" , which provides enumeration of the different species of bamboos found in North Bengal, with special emphasis on taxonomy, edible properties, chemical constituents, morphological features along with tissue culture specifications, which in turn benefits of scientific community. AVAILABILITY: The database is freely available at http://www.bamboodb.ind.in/     

The faint promise of a distant market: a survey of Belém's trade in non-timber forest products

Increased trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has been promoted as one possible means to slow tropical deforestation by increasing the economic value of intact forest. A market survey of NTFPs occurring in the Capim River basin in eastern Amazonia, Brazil demonstrated that the reality for many smallholder communities in frontier and remote regions includes chronic transportation difficulties, high variability in fruit production, perishable products and lack of market expertise. In some communities, declining abundance of NTFPs due to logging and fire has resulted in a lack of forest products to even meet subsistence needs. In areas close to cities where transportation is assured and where forest clearing has eroded the natural occurrence of some valuable native NTFPs, smallholders who manage and successfully market native fruit and medicinal species are overcoming these obstacles. In frontier regions undergoing rapid transformation, however, decline in locally used and regionally marketed NTFPs currently pose detrimental consequences for communities. Findings suggest that an overemphasis on NTFP marketing has diverted attention from local livelihood, resource access and subsistence issues.     

Wild and cultivated mushrooms as a model of sustainable development

The natural resources are currently overexploited and since 1992 the Conference of Rio de Janeiro has focused on sustainable development to safeguard our planet for future generations. The Fungi kingdom includes producers of goods and services for ecosystems and organisms widely used in the food industry. Besides, macrofungi are recognized as non-timber forest products and could be utilized as agents of environmental management through weed biocontrol and environmental improvement. Moreover, the cultivation of fungi, in particular truffles, can provide an important income in agroecosystems, especially in marginal areas, along with the development of new technologies to produce novel products from fungi.