Structure based design of a Ca2+-sensitive RhoA protein that controls cell morphology

The Rho proteins are important regulators of cell morphology, and the prototypical protein RhoA is known to regulate contraction, blebbing and bleb retraction. We have identified and experimentally confirmed that RhoA has a binding site for calmodulin, a ubiquitous transducer of the Ca(2+) second messenger. Using structural modeling, a fusion protein was designed wherein RhoA activity was controlled by Ca(2+) via calmodulin. Living cells transfected with this synthetic protein underwent Ca(2+) sensitive and calmodulin-dependent bleb retraction within minutes. Further, the modularity of Ca(2+) signaling was exploited to induce bleb retraction in response to blue light (using channelrhodopsin-2) or exogenous chemicals (with acetylcholine receptor), showing input signal versatility. The widespread use of Ca(2+) signaling in nature suggests that fully exploring its signaling potential may allow powerful applications to other synthetic biological systems.     

胞外Ca2+信号——动植物中的第一信使

钙离子作为重要的胞内第二信使, 控制着许多细胞的功能, 人们对此已经研究得比较深入。然而最近发现的一些细胞表面胞外Ca²⁺探测器使我们想到是否在胞外环境中, 钙离子也具有信号分子的功能。钙离子传感器包括已经研究得比较清楚的胞外Ca²⁺敏感受体—最初从甲状旁腺分离的G-耦联蛋白受体(CaR), 另外, 还有其他受体、通道和膜蛋白也都对胞外[Ca²⁺]的变化很敏感。最近从拟南芥保卫细胞中克隆到一个胞外钙离子受体蛋白(CAS), 通过胞外钙离子的变化引起胞内钙离子信号。这些受体蛋白的克隆, 使人们确信Ca²⁺在细胞中可以发挥第一信使的功能。     

Hippocalcin in the olfactory epithelium: a mediator of second messenger signaling

Intracellular Ca2+ plays an important role in a variety of second messenger cascades. The function of Ca2+ is mediated, in part, by Ca2+-binding proteins such as calmodulin, calretinin, calbindin, neurocalcin, recoverin, and visinin-like proteins (VILIPs). These proteins are highly expressed in rat olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs) and are localized to distinct intracellular regions. In the present study, we have identified another Ca2+-binding protein, hippocalcin, in the rat olfactory epithelium (OE). Olfactory/brain hippocalcin shows high sequence homology with hippocalcins expressed in mice and humans. Hippocalcin was predominantly localized to the olfactory cilia, the site of the initial events of olfactory signal transduction, and was found to regulate the activity of ciliary adenylate cyclases (ACs) and particulate guanylyl cyclases (GCs) in a Ca2+-dependent manner. These data indicate that hippocalcin is expressed in rat ORNs, and is likely to regulate second messenger cascades in a Ca2+-dependent manner.     

Ca2+ induces clustering of membrane proteins in the plasma membrane via electrostatic interactions

Membrane proteins and membrane lipids are frequently organized in submicron-sized domains within cellular membranes. Factors thought to be responsible for domain formation include lipid-lipid interactions, lipid-protein interactions and protein-protein interactions. However, it is unclear whether the domain structure is regulated by other factors such as divalent cations. Here, we have examined in native plasma membranes and intact cells the role of the second messenger Ca(2+) in membrane protein organization. We find that Ca(2+) at low micromolar concentrations directly redistributes a structurally diverse array of membrane proteins via electrostatic effects. Redistribution results in a more clustered pattern, can be rapid and triggered by Ca(2+) influx through voltage-gated calcium channels and is reversible. In summary, the data demonstrate that the second messenger Ca(2+) strongly influences the organization of membrane proteins, thus adding a novel and unexpected factor that may control the domain structure of biological membranes.     

Multiple regulation of proenkephalin gene expression by protein kinase C

In the present study we investigated the role of protein kinase C (Ca2+/phospholipid-dependent enzyme)-mediated processes in the regulation of proenkephalin gene expression in primary cultures of bovine adrenal chromaffin cells. Activators of protein kinase C such as 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol, mezerein, and the phorbol esters phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and phorbol 12,13-didecanoate induced a time-dependent increase in proenkephalin mRNA levels, whereas the inactive phorbol ester 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate had no effect. The increase in phorbol ester-induced proenkephalin mRNA was potentiated by low concentrations of the Ca2+ ionophore A23187, suggesting an interaction between protein kinase- and Ca2+-mediated processes in the regulation of proenkephalin mRNA. The phorbol ester-induced stimulation does not appear to be mediated by an interaction with the cAMP-generating system or increases in Ca2+ uptake. However, when proenkephalin mRNA levels were stimulated by KCl (10 mM) and the dihydropyridine BayK8644, PMA exhibited an inhibitory effect on proenkephalin mRNA, which was detectable at a 10-fold lower concentration of PMA than the stimulatory effect. This inhibitory effect appears to be mediated by an inhibition of Ca2+ entry through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, as suggested by 45Ca2+ uptake experiments. Thus, the net effect of PMA depends on and varies with the state of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel activity. A third mode of action by protein kinase C to modulate proenkephalin gene expression is by interaction with the phosphatidylinositol second messenger system. Stimulation of phosphoinositide hydrolysis and proenkephalin mRNA by histaminic H1-receptor activation was inhibited by low concentrations of PMA. We suggest that protein kinase C may act as a positive and negative regulator of proenkephalin gene expression by interacting with at least three receptor-coupled second messenger systems.     

Activation of ryanodine receptor/Ca2+ release channels downregulates CD38 in the Namalwa B lymphoma

CD38 is a multifunctional ectoenzyme that catalyses formation of cyclic ADP ribose (cADPr), a second messenger that opens ryanodine receptor (RyR) Ca2+ channels. Despite its importance in signal transduction processes, little is known about the mechanisms regulating CD38 expression levels. In the current study, ryanodine stimulation of Ca2+ release in Namalwa cells decreased both CD38 protein abundance and cyclase activity. Reductions in cyclase activity were prevented by RyR antagonists, by lysosomal blockers, though not by calpain or proteasomal inhibitors. These findings indicate a novel negative feedback mechanism between RyR channel activity and CD38 abundance acts in cADPr signal transduction.     

Role of protein kinase C in transmembrane signaling

Many extracellular signals elicit Ca2+ mobilization and diacylglycerol formation in their target cells. Diacylglycerol is derived from the receptor-linked phosphoinositide turnover and serves as a second messenger for the activation of protein kinase C in the presence of Ca2+ and phosphatidylserine. Unique diacylglycerols such as 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-glycerol, which activate intracellular protein kinase C when added to intact cells, have been synthesized. Tumor-promoting phorbol esters substitute for such diacylglycerols and directly activate protein kinase C in both intact cell and cell-free systems. Under appropriate conditions, the synthetic diacylglycerols and phorbol esters induce protein kinase C activation without Ca2+ mobilization, whereas Ca2+ ionophore A23187 induces Ca2+ mobilization without protein kinase C activation. Using these substances, we have obtained evidence that both protein C and Ca2+ are involved in and play a synergistic role in exocytosis, cell division, and other cellular functions. In this article, the role of protein kinase C in transmembrane signaling is discussed.     

Electrically triggered all-or-none Ca(2)+-liberation during action potential in the giant alga Chara.

Electrically triggered action potentials in the giant alga Chara corallina are associated with a transient rise in the concentration of free Ca(2)+ in the cytoplasm (Ca(2)+(cyt)). The present measurements of Ca(2)+(cyt) during membrane excitation show that stimulating pulses of low magnitude (subthreshold pulse) had no perceivable effect on Ca(2)+(cyt). When the strength of a pulse exceeded a narrow threshold (suprathreshold pulse) it evoked the full extent of the Ca(2)+(cyt) elevation. This suggests an all-or-none mechanism for Ca(2)+ mobilization. A transient calcium rise could also be induced by one subthreshold pulse if it was after another subthreshold pulse of the same kind after a suitable interval, i.e., not closer than a few 100 ms and not longer than a few seconds. This dependency of Ca(2)+ mobilization on single and double pulses can be simulated by a model in which a second messenger is produced in a voltage-dependent manner. This second messenger liberates Ca(2)+ from internal stores in an all-or-none manner once a critical concentration (threshold) of the second messenger is exceeded in the cytoplasm. The positive effect of a single suprathreshold pulse and two optimally spaced subthreshold pulses on Ca(2)+ mobilization can be explained on the basis of relative velocity for second messenger production and decomposition as well as the availability of the precursor for the second messenger production. Assuming that inositol-1,4,5,-trisphosphate (IP(3)) is the second messenger in question, the present data provide the major rate constants for IP(3) metabolism.     

雌激素的心脏保护作用——与β1-肾上腺素受体的相互作用及其信号通路

雌激素是女性体内主要的类固醇性激素。对于心肌缺血性伤害,切除卵巢的成年雌性大鼠在β-肾上腺素受体激动时,比正常雌性大鼠呈现更严重的心肌损伤：而去卵巢后的雌激素替补组大鼠对β-肾上腺素受体激动时心肌缺血性伤害的反应则又回复到正常雌性大鼠水平,这为雌激素对抗缺血性伤害的心脏保护作用提供了证据。雌激素的这种保护作用是通过下调β1-肾上腺素受体的表达来实现的。也有研究证明,雌激素能抑制蛋白激酶A（protein kinaseA,PKA）的表达和活性,PKA是Gs蛋白／腺苷酸环化酶（adenylyl cyclase,AC）／cAMP／PKA通路的第二信使,而该通路最终影响心肌的收缩功能。有初步证据表明雌激素还能抑制β1-肾上腺素受体通路下游的另一种第二信使钙调蛋白激酶Ⅱ．δc（Ca^2＋/calmodulin kinaseⅡ-δc,CaMKⅡ-δc）的活性,而CaMKII-δc参与PKA非依赖性的细胞凋亡。即时给予生理浓度雌激素可不通过雌激素受体而直接抑制心肌β1-肾上腺素受体并减弱Ca^2＋内流。此外,脑研究也显示雌激素能抑制负责调节动脉血压脑区的β1-肾上腺素受体活性。因此,雌激素和β1-肾上腺素受体之间的相互作用及其信号通路十分复杂。雌激素不仅主导性别决定,在机体其它功能例如心脏保护方面也具有重要作用。     

雌激素的心脏保护作用——与β1-肾上腺素受体的相互作用及其信号通路

雌激素是女性体内主要的类固醇性激素.对于心肌缺血性伤害,切除卵巢的成年雌性大鼠在β-肾上腺素受体激动时,比正常雌性大鼠呈现更严重的心肌损伤;而去卵巢后的雌激素替补组大鼠对β-肾上腺素受体激动时心肌缺血性伤害的反应则又回复到正常雌性大鼠水平,这为雌激素对抗缺血性伤害的心脏保护作用提供了证据.雌激素的这种保护作用是通过下调β1-肾上腺素受体的表达来实现的.也有研究证明,雌激素能抑制蛋白激酶A(protein kinase A,PKA)的表达和活性,PKA是Gs蛋白/腺苷酸环化酶(adenylyl cyclase,AC)/cAMP/PKA通路的第二信使,而该通路最终影响心肌的收缩功能.有初步证据表明雌激素还能抑制β1-肾上腺素受体通路下游的另一种第二信使钙调蛋白激酶Ⅱ-δc(Ca2+/calmodulin kinase Ⅱ-δc,CaMKⅡ-δc)的活性,而CaMKⅡ-δc参与PKA非依赖性的细胞凋亡.即时给予生理浓度雌激素可不通过雌激素受体而直接抑制心肌β1-肾上腺素受体并减弱Ca2+内流.此外,脑研究也显示雌激素能抑制负责调节动脉血压脑区的β广肾上腺素受体活性.因此,雌激素和β1-肾上腺素受体之间的相互作用及其信号通路十分复杂.雌激素不仅主导性别决定,在机体其它功能例如心脏保护方面也具有重要作用.     

Regulation of D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate 3-kinase by cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C

The Ca2(+)-mobilizing second messenger D-myo-inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (Ins(1,4,5)P3) is converted to the putative messenger D-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate by Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase. We found that cAMP-dependent protein kinase and protein kinase C phosphorylate, and thereby modulate, the activity of Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase. cAMP-dependent kinase introduced a stoichiometric amount of phosphate at serine 109 of the 53-kDa polypeptide and caused a 1.8-fold increase in Vmax, whereas the protein kinase C-dependent phosphorylation reduced the Vmax to one-fourth of that of the unphosphorylated enzyme. Upon prolonged incubation, protein kinase C introduced phosphate at multiple sites in Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase, and the resulting inactivation of the enzyme appeared to be well-correlated with the simultaneous phosphorylation of two major sites, serine 109 and serine 175. The Km for Ins(1,4,5)P3 was not affected significantly after phosphorylation by either protein kinase. We propose, therefore, that the phosphorylation of Ins(1,4,5)P3 3-kinase by cAMP-dependent kinase and protein kinase C constitutes mechanisms of cross-talk between cellular signaling pathways that use various second messengers such as inositol phosphates, diacylglycerol, Ca2+, and cAMP.     

Purification of the Ca2+-stimulated ATPase activator from human erythrocytes. Its membership in the class of Ca2+-binding modulator proteins.

The activator of the Ca2+-stimulated ATPase of erythrocyte membranes was purified 13,000-fold to homogeneity from human erythrocytes. The protein gave a single band upon electrophoresis both with and without detergent, and upon isoelectric focusing. This protein was compared with Ca2+-binding modulator proteins from bovine brain and rat testis. All three proteins were homogeneous and co-migrated on electrophoresis both in the presence of detergent and without detergent at pH values on both sides of the isoelectric point of the protein. The amino acid compositions of the three proteins were nearly indistinguishable, and all three proteins contained 1 residue of the unusual amino acid, trimethyllysine. All three were also indistinguishable as measured by their ability to further stimulate the Ca2+-stimulated ATPase of human erythrocyte membranes. Thus, we conclude that they represent functionally the same protein. Upon storage of all three proteins, a second band was detectable by detergent gel electrophoresis; the biochemical activity and the behavior on nondetergent gels were not changed. The presence of this second band is probably responsible for previous reports of differences between the rat testis and bovine brain modulator protein. The possibility is discussed that this protein is a general intracellular Ca2+ receptor, which mediates the activities of Ca2+ as an intracellular messenger.     

Ca2+ signal stimulates the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and steroidogenesis in bovine adrenal fasciculata-reticularis cells

Adrenal glucocorticoid synthesis is stimulated by ACTH or its nitrophenylsulphenyl derivative, NPS-ACTH. Acute stimulation of steroid hormone biosynthesis is highly dependent on the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein. To determine the regulatory mechanism of StAR expression in bovine fasciculata/reticularis cells, we analyzed the second messenger systems involved in StAR protein expression using cultured cells activated by ACTH and NPS-ACTH. We concluded that cAMP is not the essential second messenger for StAR protein expression, since NPS-ACTH activated StAR protein expression more than ACTH without increase in cellular cAMP. A 15-lipoxygenase metabolite(s) of arachidonic acid stimulated steroidogenesis without increase in StAR protein expression, since AA-861, a lipoxygenase inhibitor, inhibited steroidogenesis without affecting StAR protein expression. Stimulation of StAR protein expression and the corresponding increase in the steroidogenesis were inhibited by nicardipine in cells treated with ACTH or NPS-ACTH. These data indicate that the dominant second messenger for the stimulation of StAR protein expression is Ca2+. Calmodulin-dependent kinase II inhibitors KN-93 and KN-62 suppressed steroidogenic activity without affecting StAR expression. The protein kinase C inhibitor Ro 31-8220 did not show any effects on StAR expression and steroidogenesis. Calmodulin-dependent kinase II and protein kinase C can therefore be concluded not to be involved in StAR protein expression in bovine cells.     

Ca2+ signal is generated only once in the mating pheromone response pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The mating pheromone, alpha-factor, of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae binds to the heterotrimeric G protein-coupled cell surface receptor of MATa cells and induces cellular responses necessary for mating. In higher eukaryotic cells, many hormones and growth factors rapidly mobilize a second messenger, Ca2+, by means of receptor-G protein signaling. Although striking similarities between the mechanisms of the receptor-G protein signaling in yeast and higher eukaryotes have long been known, it is still uncertain whether the pheromone rapidly mobilizes Ca2+ necessary for early events of the pheromone response. Here we reexamine this problem using sensitive methods for detecting Ca2+ fluxes and mobilization, and find no evidence that there is rapid Ca2+ influx leading to a rapid increase in the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration. In addition, the yeast PLC1 deletion mutant lacking phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C, a key enzyme for generating Ca2+ signals in higher eukaryotic cells, responds normally to the pheromone. These findings suggest that the receptor-G protein signaling does not utilize Ca2+ as a second messenger in the early stage of the pheromone response pathway. Since the receptor-G protein signaling does stimulate Ca2+ influx after early events have finished and this stimulation is essential for late events in the pheromone response pathway [Iida et al., (1990) J. Biol. Chem., 265: 13391-13399] Ca2+ may be used only once in the signal transduction pathway in unicellular eukaryotes such as yeast.     

Calcium-stimulated autophosphorylation site of plant chimeric calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase

The existence of two molecular switches regulating plant chimeric Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CCaMK), namely the C-terminal visinin-like domain acting as Ca(2+)-sensitive molecular switch and calmodulin binding domain acting as Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation-sensitive molecular switch, has been described (Sathyanarayanan, P. V., Cremo, C. R., and Poovaiah, B. W. (2000) J. Biol. Chem. 275, 30417-30422). Here we report the identification of Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation site of CCaMK by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight-mass spectrometry. Thr(267) was confirmed as the Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation site by post-source decay experiments and by site-directed mutagenesis. The purified T267A mutant form of CCaMK did not show Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation, autophosphorylation-dependent variable calmodulin affinity, or Ca(2+)/calmodulin stimulation of kinase activity. Sequence comparison of CCaMK from monocotyledonous plant (lily) and dicotyledonous plant (tobacco) suggests that the autophosphorylation site is conserved. This is the first identification of a phosphorylation site specifically responding to activation by second messenger system (Ca(2+) messenger system) in plants. Homology modeling of the kinase and calmodulin binding domain of CCaMK with the crystal structure of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase 1 suggests that the Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation site is located on the surface of the kinase and far from the catalytic site. Analysis of Ca(2+)-stimulated autophosphorylation with increasing concentration of CCaMK indicates the possibility that the Ca(2+)-stimulated phosphorylation occurs by an intermolecular mechanism.     

A mechanosensitive cation channel in endothelial cells and its role in vasoregulation

Ca2+ is an important intracellular second messenger in signal transduction of endothelial cells. It has long been recognized that a mechanosensitive Ca2+-permeable channel is present in vascular endothelial cells. The activity of this channel may increase intracellular Ca2+ level in endothelial cells. A recent finding is that the activity of this channel may be regulated by cGMP through a protein kinase G-dependent pathway. Inhibition of the channel by cGMP abolishes the Ca2+ influx elicited by flow. Several inhibitors of the cation channel including Gd3+, Ni2+, and SK&F-96365 also inhibit the Ca2+ influx due to flow stimulation. These data suggest that a mechanosensitive cation channel is the primary pathway mediating the flow-induced Ca2+ entry in vascular endothelial cells. Another important finding is that the opening of this mechanosensitive channel by KT5823 leads to endothelium-dependent vascular dilation. Therefore, it appears that this channel may play a crucial role in the regulation of vascular tone.     

Regulation of cGMP synthesis in photoreceptors: role in signal transduction and congenital diseases of the retina

Calcium feedback in vertebrate photoreceptors regulates synthesis of cGMP, a second messenger in phototransduction. The decrease in the free intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations caused by illumination stimulates two isoforms of retinal membrane guanylyl cyclase (RetGC) via Ca(2+)-sensor proteins and thus contributes to photoreceptor recovery and light adaptation. Unlike other members of the membrane guanylyl cyclase family, retinal guanylyl cyclases do not have identified extracellular peptide ligands. Recoverin-like proteins, GCAP-1 and GCAP-2, interact with the intracellular portion of the cyclases and stimulate its activity through dimerization of the cyclase subunits. Several mutations that affect the function of photoreceptor guanylyl cyclase and the activator protein have been linked to various forms of congenital human retinal diseases, such as Leber congenital amaurosis, cone and cone-rod dystrophy.     

The role of sphingomyelin cycle metabolites in transduction of signals of cell proliferation, differentiation and death

Sphingomyelin cycle metabolites ceramide, sphingosine and sphingosine 1-phosphate play an important role in cell proliferation, differentiation, reception, oncogenesis and apoptosis. Ceramide is an intracellular second messenger for apoptosis activating proteases and specific phosphatases. Sphingosine is an endogenous inhibitor of protein kinase C and has an inhibitory effect on many cell functions depending on the activity of this enzyme. On the other hand, sphingosine can activate other kinases depending on the concentration, cell type and nature of a stimulus and release Ca2+ from intracellular stores thereby regulating cell proliferation. Sphingosine induces apoptosis and its level is increased in cells as a result of action of apoptotic inducers. A phosphorylated product of sphingosine, sphingosine 1-phosphate, mediates the mitogenic signal, induces Ca2+ mobilization and protects cells from apoptosis resulting from elevation of ceramide. The quantitative levels of sphingomyelin metabolites in the cell determine the dynamic balance between the apoptotic and mitogenic signals.     

IRBIT, inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate (IP3) receptor-binding protein released with IP3, binds Na+/H+ exchanger NHE3 and activates NHE3 activity in response to calcium

Calcium (Ca2+) is a highly versatile second messenger that regulates various cellular processes. Previous studies showed that elevation of intracellular Ca2+ regulates the activity of Na+/H+ exchanger 3 (NHE3). However, the effect of Ca2+-dependent signaling on NHE3 activity varies depending on cell types. In this study, we report the identification of IP3 receptor-binding protein released with IP3 (IRBIT) as a NHE3 interacting protein and its role in regulation of NHE3 activity. IRBIT bound to the carboxyl-terminal domain of NHE3, which is necessary for acute regulation of NHE3. Ectopic expression of IRBIT resulted in Ca2+-dependent activation of NHE3 activity, whereas silencing of endogenous IRBIT resulted in inhibition of NHE3 activity. Ca2+-dependent stimulation of NHE3 activity was dependent on the binding of IRBIT to NHE3. Previously Ca2+-dependent inhibition of NHE3 was demonstrated in the presence of NHERF2. Co-expression of IRBIT was able to reverse the NHERF2-dependent inhibition of NHE3. We also showed that IRBIT-dependent activation of NHE3 involves exocytic trafficking of NHE3 to the plasma membrane and this activation was blocked by inhibition of calmodulin (CaM) or CaM-dependent kinase II. These results suggest that the overall effect of Ca2+ on NHE3 activity is balanced by IRBIT-dependent activation and NHERF2-dependent inhibition.