Influence of spawning on swimming performance and muscle contractile properties in the short-horn sculpin

The total distance travelled during the first two kinematic stages of the escape response of short-horn sculpin was significantly greater in post spawning fish (0·41 L) than in gravid fish (0·23 L). The maximum velocity of the snout during the C-bend was significantly higher (5·6 L s⁻¹) in postspawning fish than in gravid fish (3·8 L s⁻¹). To investigate some of the mechanisms underlying changes in swimming performance, the contractile properties of fast muscle fibres were determined in fish of similar body length. The rate of tetanic force relaxation (time from last stimulus to 50% peak force) was 34% faster in gr avid than in postspawning fish. Maximum contraction velocity, determined by the slack-test method, was significantly higher in gravid than in postspawning fish (6·8 v . 5·9 muscle lengths s⁻¹). In contrast, both maximum isometric stress and power output (determined from the force–velocity relationship) were >50% higher in fibres from postspawning than from gravid fish, even though myofibrillar protein and water contents were similar (120 mg g⁻¹ wet mass and 86% of body mass, respectively). The results show that swimming performance and the contractile properties of fast muscle fibres vary with the reproductive cycle in short-horn sculpin acclimated to the same photoperiodic and temperature regime.     

The effect of size on the timing of visually mediated escape behaviour in staghorn sculpin Leptocottus armatus

The effect of prey size on the timing of the startle response in the sculpin Leptocottus armatus was investigated. Escape responses were triggered visually by a looming image obtained using a computer‐generated animation of an approaching black disk. The results showed that apparent looming threshold ( T _AL, i.e. the threshold at which the rate of change of the visual angle subtended by predator frontal profile onto the prey's eye triggers an escape response by the prey) decreased with increasing prey size. Distance travelled within a fixed time was unaffected by size. Theoretical considerations suggest that larger prey would need to travel a longer distance (and so they would need more time) in order to move their whole body outside the predator's approaching gape. Therefore, the scaling of T _AL may be explained by taking into account both ultimate and proximate considerations that need not be mutually exclusive. At an ultimate level, lower T _AL in larger fish may be explained in terms of offsetting the disadvantage of offering a larger volume to be intercepted by the predator. At a proximate level, T _AL may be related to the fish's visual acuity, which is higher in larger fish.     

The thermal dependence of fast-start performance in fish

Many fish species use fast-starts to escape predators and capture prey. There is evidence for changes in fast-start behaviour with temperature, over acute, seasonal, developmental and evolutionary time scales. Maximum velocity often increases with acute temperature changes. Thermal acclimation can improve fast-start performance, although responses appear to be reduced in more eurythermal species. Changes in performance with thermal acclimation are often reflected at the molecular, biochemical and cellular levels of organisation. There appears to be little compensation in fast-start performance in Antarctic fish compared to warmer water species.     

Consequences of thermal acclimation for the mating behaviour and swimming performance of female mosquito fish

The mating system of eastern mosquito fish (Gambusia holbrooki) is dominated by male sexual coercion, where all matings are forced and females never appear to cooperate and actively avoid all attempts. Previous research has shown that male G. holbrooki offer a model system for examining the benefits of reversible thermal acclimation for reproductive success, but examining the benefits to female avoidance behaviour has been difficult. In this study, we examined the ability of non-male-deprived female G. holbrooki to avoid forced-coercive matings following acclimation to either 18 or 30 degrees C for six weeks (12h light:12h dark photoperiod). Thermal acclimation of burst and sustained swimming performance was also assessed, as these traits are likely to underlie their ability to avoid forced matings. There was no influence of thermal acclimation on the burst swimming performance of female G. holbrooki over the range 18-30 degrees C; however, sustained swimming performance was significantly lower in the warm- than the cool-acclimation group. For mating behaviour, we tested the hypothesis that acclimation would enhance the ability of female G. holbrooki to avoid forced matings at their host acclimation temperature relative to females acclimated to another environment. However, our hypothesis was not supported. The rate of copulations was almost three times greater for females acclimated to 30 degrees C than 18 degrees C when tested at 30 degrees C, indicating that they possess the ability to alter their avoidance behaviour to 'allow' more copulations in some environments. Coupled with previous studies, female G. holbrooki appear to have greater control on the outcome of coercive mating attempts than previously considered and can alter their propensity to receive forced matings following thermal acclimation. The significance of this change in female mating-avoidance behaviours with thermal acclimation remains to be explored.     

The effect of temperature and thermal acclimation on the sustainable performance of swimming scup

There is a significant reduction in overall maximum power output of muscle at low temperatures due to reduced steady-state (i.e. maximum activation) power-generating capabilities of muscle. However, during cyclical locomotion, a further reduction in power is due to the interplay between non-steady-state contractile properties of muscle (i.e. rates of activation and relaxation) and the stimulation and the length-change pattern muscle undergoes in vivo. In particular, even though the relaxation rate of scup red muscle is slowed greatly at cold temperatures (10°C), warm-acclimated scup swim with the same stimulus duty cycles at cold as they do at warm temperature, not affording slow-relaxing muscle any additional time to relax. Hence, at 10°C, red muscle generates extremely low or negative work in most parts of the body, at all but the slowest swimming speeds.Do scup shorten their stimulation duration and increase muscle relaxation rate during cold acclimation? At 10°C, electromyography (EMG) duty cycles were 18% shorter in cold-acclimated scup than in warm-acclimated scup. But contrary to the expectations, the red muscle did not have a faster relaxation rate, rather, cold-acclimated muscle had an approximately 50% faster activation rate. By driving cold- and warm-acclimated muscle through cold- and warm-acclimated conditions, we found a very large increase in red muscle power during swimming at 10°C. As expected, reducing stimulation duration markedly increased power output. However, the increased rate of activation alone produced an even greater effect. Hence, to fully understand thermal acclimation, it is necessary to examine the whole system under realistic physiological conditions.     

Predicting the swimming and diving behaviour of penguins from muscle biochemistry

Energy metabolism in the pectoralis and supracoracoideus muscles of seven species of penguins was investigated by determining muscle fibre diameter, myoglobin content, pH buffering capacity and the distribution and properties of lactate dehydrogenase isoenzymes.The penguins can be arranged as follows in order of increasing anaerobic capabilities of the muscles: little < rockhopper and royal < gentoo < Adelie, emperor and king.As a good correlation exists between muscle biochemistry and known diving behaviour of emperor, king, gentoo and little penguins, predictions can be made about the behaviour of species for which only the biochemical data are available.     

Short-term thermal acclimation induces adaptive changes in the inner mitochondrial membranes of fish skeletal muscle

In the oxidative muscles (musculi laterales superficiales) of crucian carp Carassius carassius acclimated for 6 weeks to either 5 or 25° C, the volume density and the surface density of fibres per tissue did not differ significantly between the control and experimental groups. The correlation ratio (μ²) for these values was below 50, 39·3 and 43·9 respectively. After acclimation to 5° C, the surface density of outer mitochondrial membrane per fibre increased significantly from 0·93 to 1·23m² cm⁻³ in the summer population but dropped from 0·94 to 0·67 m² cm⁻³ in the winter population. The surface density of outer mitochondrial membrane per mitochondrion increased from 3·24 to 4·52 m² cm⁻³ in summer fish. After acclimation to 25° C, the surface density of inner mitochondrial membranes per muscle fibre decreased from 4·04 to 1·79 m² cm⁻³ in summer fish and from 3·86 to 1·07 m² cm⁻³ in winter fish. The surface density of inner mitochondrial membranes per mitochondrion increased from 14·17 to 15·60 m²cm⁻³ in summer fish but dropped from 13·91 to 10·67 m² cm⁻³ in winter fish. Correlation matrices demonstrate a negative correlation of the surface density of outer mitochondrial membrane per mitochondrion with the volume density of mitochondria per fibre and temperature, suggesting cold-induced proliferation of small mitochondria. It was concluded that short-term cold acclimation increased surface area of the inner mitochondrial membranes in summer fish.     

Comparisons of swimming performance in rainbow trout using constant acceleration and critical swimming speed tests

Maximum swimming performance of seasonally acclimated rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss was compared among short-duration constant acceleration tests ( U _max) and with the well established, but longer duration critical swimming speed ( U _crit) test. The present results show that U _max was insensitive to a range of acceleration rates that differed by more than three-fold. Thus, test duration could be reduced from 58 to 18 min without affecting the estimate of U _max. The value of U _max, however, was up to 57% higher than U _crit. Only the slowest acceleration rate tested (an increase of 1 cm s⁻¹ every min) had a significantly lower U _max, and this was up to 19% higher than U _crit. Even so, the potential saving in the test duration was small (70 v. 90 min) when compared with a ramp- U _crit test (a standard U _crit test but with the water velocity initially ramped to c . 50% of the estimated U _crit). Therefore, swim tests that are appreciably shorter in duration than a ramp- U _crit test result in U _max being appreciably greater than U _crit. An additional discovery was that the ramp- U _crit performance of cold-acclimated rainbow trout was independent of the recovery period between tests. These results may prove useful in making comparisons among different swim test protocols and in designing swim tests that assess fish health and toxicological impacts.     

Shifts in abundance and growth of slimy sculpin in response to changes in the predator population in an arctic Alaskan lake

Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) in Toolik Lake are tightly coupled to the benthos, since they have no pelagic forage fishes. Slimy sculpins (Cottus cognatus) are a prey of lake trout and the soft sediment chironomids are an important prey for the sculpin. Our previous work showed that the median size of lake trout in Toolik Lake had decreased significantly between 1977 and 1986, and smaller lake trout are likely to be less effective as sculpin predators. Using our historic data on the slimy sculpin population from 1978, we took advantage of the recent change in the predator community to examine for subsequent changes in the sculpin community. Between 1978 and 1987, the percentage of slimy sculpin caught in the soft sediments has increased (25% to 39.5%). In 1987 there was a significant difference in the mean weight of sculpin caught on different substrates. The mean individual weight of sculpins increased from the nearshore rock area to the rock/soft-sediment interface to the soft sediments. There was no difference in mean individual weight with habitat in 1978. The mean total length at age for slimy sculpins during this time has also increased significantly. We suggest that the risk of predation while foraging in the soft sediments has declined. The increased use of the soft sediment area appears to have contributed to their increased growth, likely due to greater food abundance.     

The effect of temperature and acclimation period on repeat swimming performance in cutthroat trout

Hatchery cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki clarki were used to examine the effects of 48 h and 3 week temperature acclimation periods on critical swimming speed ( U _crit). The U _crit was determined for fish at acclimation temperatures of 7, 14 and 18° C using two consecutive ramp‐ U _crit tests in mobile Brett‐type swim tunnels. An additional group was tested at the stock's ambient rearing temperature of 10° C. The length of the temperature acclimation period had no significant effect on either the first or the second U _crit( U _crit‐1 and U _crit‐2, respectively) or on the recovery ratio (the quotient of U _crit‐2  U _crit‐1⁻¹). As anticipated, there was a significant positive relationship between U _crit‐1 and temperature ( P  < 0·01) for both acclimation periods, and an increasing, though non‐significant, trend between U _crit‐2 and temperature ( P  = 0·10). Acclimation temperature had no significant effect ( P  = 0·71) on the recovery ratio. These results indicate that a 48 h acclimation to experimental temperatures within the range of −3 to +8° C of the acclimation temperature may be sufficient in studies of swimming performance with this species. This ability to acclimate rapidly is probably adaptive for cutthroat trout and other species that occupy thermally variable environments.     

Seasonal changes in temperature and nutrient control of photosynthesis, respiration and growth of natural phytoplankton communities

1. To investigate the influence of elevated temperatures and nutrients on photosynthesis, respiration and growth of natural phytoplankton assemblages, water was collected from a eutrophic lake in spring, summer, autumn, winter and the following spring and exposed to ambient temperature and ambient +2, +4 and +6 °C for 2 weeks with and without addition of extra inorganic nutrients. 2. Rates of photosynthesis, respiration and growth generally increased with temperature, but this effect was strongly enhanced by high nutrient availability, and therefore was most evident for nutrient amended cultures in seasons of low ambient nutrient availability. 3. Temperature stimulation of growth and metabolism was higher at low than high ambient temperature showing that long‐term temperature acclimation of the phytoplankton community before the experiments was of great importance for the measured rates. 4. Although we found distinct responses to relatively small temperature increases, the interaction between nutrient availability, time of the year and, thus, ambient temperature was responsible for most of the observed variability in phytoplankton growth, photosynthesis and respiration. 5. Although an increase in global temperature will influence production and degradation of organic material in lakes, the documented importance of ambient temperatures and nutrient conditions suggests that effects will be most pronounced during winter and early spring, while the remaining part of the growth season will be practically unaffected by increasing temperatures.     

Seasonal changes in temperature response of photosynthesis and its contribution to annual carbon gain in Daphniphyllum humile,an evergreen understorey shrub

We evaluated seasonal variation in photosynthetic temperature dependence and its contribution to annual carbon gain in an evergreen understorey shrub, Daphniphyllum humile Maxim, growing at the forest border and in the understorey of a deciduous forest. Plants at both sites exhibited similar optimal temperatures for photosynthesis (T_opt). The activation energy for ribulose‐1,5‐bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylation (H_aV) at both sites tended to be higher in summer than in spring or autumn, suggesting that H_aV may be the controlling factor in the T_opt shift in D. humile. In contrast to the seasonal changes in T_opt, the maximum photosynthetic rate at the optimal temperature (P_opt) differed between the two sites: it was lower in autumn than in summer at the forest border, but was the same in summer and autumn in the understorey. In the understorey plants, nitrogen content (N_area) increased in autumn, but this was not the case for forest border plants. In addition, Rubisco content increased significantly in autumn in the understorey leaves but decreased distinctly in forest border leaves. Increased N_area and Rubisco in understorey leaves resulted in increased in photosynthesis in autumn. Annual carbon gain was 30.8 mol·m^?2 in forest border leaves and 5.8 mol·m^?2 in understorey leaves. Carbon gain in understorey leaves during the short period after overstorey leaf fall and before snow accumulation was approximately 49% of annual carbon gain. Furthermore, autumn carbon gain calculated using activation energy of summer with autumn photosynthetic parameters underestimated the autumn carbon gain by as much as 31%. In conclusion, photosynthetic temperature acclimation may be a key factor in increasing annual carbon gain in understorey D. humile.     

东方蝾螈幼体热耐受性和游泳表现的热驯化响应

特定物种的热驯化能力决定着其是否能成功耐受环境温度的改变,在应对未来气候变暖的趋势中扮演重要角色。为评估有尾类两栖动物的热驯化反应,在3个恒定水温(15、20℃和25℃)中驯化东方蝾螈(Cynops orientalis)幼体4周,测定驯化后幼体在不同测试温度下的运动(游泳)表现、临界低温(CT_(Min))与临界高温(CT_(Max))。结果显示:驯化与测试温度均显著影响蝾螈的游泳速度;驯化温度亦影响蝾螈的CT_(Min)和CT_(Max),但不影响可耐受温度范围(TRR)。驯化与测试温度的交互作用对蝾螈泳速的影响显著,表明驯化温度可改变其游泳表现的热敏感性。经某一温度驯化后蝾螈泳速似乎在相同测试温度下表现最好,该结果可能支持驯化有益假说。CT_(Min)和CT_(Max)随驯化温度的升高而增加,表明:低温驯化可提高动物抗低温能力,而高温驯化提高其抗高温能力。两栖类动物热耐受性与运动表现热驯化反应的种间变异可能与栖息地热环境的差异有关。     

The muscle twitch and the maximum swimming speed of giant bluefin tuna, Thunnus thynnus L.

Sustained swimming of bluefin tuna was analysed from video recordings made of a captive patrolling fish school [lengths (L) 1.7–3.3 m, body mass (M) 54–433 kg]. Speeds ranged from 0.6 to 1.2 L s⁻¹ (86–260 km day⁻¹) while stride length during steady speed swimming varied between 0.54 and 0.93 L. Maximum swimming speed was estimated by measuring twitch contraction of the anaerobic swimming muscle in pithed fish 5 min after death. Muscle contraction time increased from the shortest just behind the head (30–50 ms at 20% L) to the longest at the tail peduncle (80–90 ms at 80% L) (all at 28°C). A fish (L = 2.26 m) with a muscle contraction time of 50 ms at 25% L can have a maximum tail beat frequency of 10 Hz and maximum swimming speed of 15m s⁻¹ (54km h⁻¹) with a stride length of 0.65L. With a stride length of 1 L a speed of 22.6 m s⁻¹ (81.4 km h⁻¹) is possible. Power used at maximum speed was estimated for this fish at between 10 and 40 kW, with corresponding values for the drag coefficient at a Reynolds number of 4.43 × 10⁷ of 0.0007 and 0.0027.     

Seasonal changes in wing dimorphism of the lygaeid bug Dimorphopterus japonicus (Heteroptera: Lygaeidae) in relation to environmental factors

The lygaeid bug Dimorphopterus japonicus Hidaka, which mainly feeds on a eulalia, Miscanthus sinensis, shows marked wing dimorphism of brachyptery and macroptery. Its production of macropters is stimulated in rearing conditions such as high temperature, long photoperiod and crowding during the nymphal stage. In this study, we investigated the seasonal prevalence in occurrence and the seasonal change in incidence of macroptery in D. japonicus for field populations in Okayama, western Japan. The results demonstrated that nymphal density was a key factor in determining the proportion of macropters, indicating an escape strategy from crowded populations. The field surveys also revealed that this bug has a univoltine life cycle in Okayama. There was a seasonal change in the incidence of macroptery in the new generation. The combined effects of temperature and photoperiod on wing‐form determination explained this seasonality trait.     

The effect of hypoxia on locomotor performance and behaviour during escape in Liza aurata

Escape performance was investigated in the golden grey mullet Liza aurata exposed to various levels of oxygen: >85 ( i.e. normoxia), 50, 20 and 10 % air saturation. Since the golden grey mullet performed aquatic surface respiration when air saturation approached 15–10 %, escape performance was tested at 10 % air saturation with and without access to the surface (10 % S and 10 % C, respectively). Various locomotor and behavioural variables were measured, such as cumulative distance, maximum swimming speed, acceleration, responsiveness (per cent of responding fish), response latency and directionality. Golden grey mullet showed a decrease in responsiveness when the oxygen level was reduced to 10 % air saturation, whether the surface access was obstructed or not. Hypoxia did not have any effect on the response latency. Cumulative distance and maximum swimming speed over a fixed time were significantly different between normoxic conditions and 10 % C, while no differences were found in maximum acceleration. While the fish's 'C‐bend' was mainly directed away from the stimulus in normoxia, the proportion of away and towards 'C‐bend' was random when the oxygen was ≤20 % air saturation. This suggested an impairment of the left‐right discrimination at the initiation of the fast start. Hypoxia affected golden grey mullet escape performance mainly through an impairment of responsiveness and directionality, while locomotor performance was affected only in severe hypoxia when the surface was obstructed. The study showed that, in addition to forcing the fish to the surface as shown by previous studies, hypoxia may also reduce fish elusiveness facing a predator by directly impairing its escape performance.     

Age- and training-related changes in the collagen metabolism of rat skeletal muscle

The effects of ageing and life-long endurance training on the collagen metabolism of skeletal muscle were evaluated in a longitudinal study. Wistar rats performed treadmill running 5 days a week for 2 years. The activities of collagen biosynthesis enzymes, prolyl-4-hydroxylase and galactosylhydroxylysyl glucosyltransferase, were highest in the muscles of the youngest animals, decreased up to the age of 2 months and from then on remained virtually unchanged. The enzyme activity in young animals was higher in the slow collagenous soleus muscle than in the rectus femoris muscle. The enzyme activity in the soleus muscle was higher for older trained rats than older untrained rats. The relative proportion of type I collagen increased and that of type III collagen decreased with age, suggesting a more marked contribution by type I collagen to the age-related accumulation of total muscular collagen. The results show that collagen biosynthesis decreases with maturation and that life-long endurance training maintains a higher level of biosynthesis in slow muscles.     

Seasonal differences in muscle fibre recruitment of pilchard larvae in the north‐western Mediterranean

The recruitment of slow and fast myotomal muscle fibres with respect to growth in body length in European pilchard larvae Sardina pilchardus [(3·5–13·5 mm standard length ( L _S)] was significantly higher in November 1998 than February 1999. This resulted in a significant seasonal difference in the relationship between fibre number and L _S, particularly for the fast muscle. Mean sea surface temperature was c . 6° C higher in November than February, whereas the mean abundance of potential prey items (copepod nauplii) was comparable between cruises. Laboratory and field data obtained from other clupeid species have indicated the importance of early thermal experience on muscle fibre recruitment patterns. Differences in average sea temperature therefore provide a plausible mechanism for the observed seasonal differences in muscle growth characteristics.     

Seasonal variation of mass, condition and gonadosomatic index in fourhorn sculpin (Myoxocephalus quadricornis) with normal and malformed vertebrae in the Gulf of Bothnia

It may be expected that vertehral anomaties would reduer the viability and reproductive success of fish. In the present study. the relationship of vertebral defects to body mass. Iength, age, condition, gonadosomatic index and growth in fourhorn sculpin, Myoxocephalus quadricornis , in the Gulf of Bothnia was studied. There were no differences in growth between normal and defective lish, for either males or females. While normal and defectives males were similar in age and length. defective females were older and longer than normal females. Defective males and females had a significantly greater somatic mass that normal fish. However defective females may be later than in normal fish. Hence, vertebral defects do not necessarly reduce the reproductive potential of fourhorn sculpin.     

温度和重复测定对秦岭细鳞鲑快速启动反应、游泳性能及力竭后代谢特征的影响

在全球气候变暖背景下,冷水性鱼类的温度适应性备受关注。秦岭细鳞鲑(Brachymystax lenok tsinlingensis)是目前世界上分布最南端的两种鲑科鱼类之一,为国家Ⅱ级重点保护水生野生动物。尽管温度是决定该物种生存与分布的关键因子,然而其热生物学相关研究至今鲜见报道。研究考察了驯化温度(6℃、12℃和18℃)和重复测定对秦岭细鳞鲑生态相关的重要指标如快速启动反应、游泳性能及力竭后代谢特征的影响。结果发现:(1)快速启动反应时滞(Latency time,Tlatency)随温度升高而变短(P<0.05),但温度和重复测定对反应率(Reaction rate,R)无显著影响(P>0.05);(2)温度对步法转换速度(Gait transition speed,Ugait)和匀加速游泳速度(Constant acceleration test speed,Ucat)影响显著(P<0.05),重复测定对Ugait和Ucat无显著影响(P>0.05);(3)温度对日常代谢率(Routine metabolic rate, RMR)和最大代谢率(Maximum metabolic rate, MMR)影响显著(P<0.05)、对代谢空间(Metabolic scope,MS)无显著影响(P>0.05),重复测定对MMR和MS均无显著影响(P>0.05);(4)低温驯化方向(6—12℃)生理参数的Q10值较大,而高温驯化方向(12—18℃)生理参数的Q10值较小。研究结果提示:(1)高温下秦岭细鳞鲑快速启动反应更为迅速,但该物种对低强度机械刺激主要采用静息而非逃逸的策略;(2)秦岭细鳞鲑游泳性能对温度变化的敏感性较高,游泳性能的最适温度估计介于12—18℃之间;(3)秦岭细鳞鲑具备较好的代谢恢复与重复运动能力,但总体上游泳性能较弱,可能易受生境水温和水流环境变化的限制。