Seed dispersal by woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) at Tinigua National Park, Colombia: dispersal distance, germination rates, and dispersal quantity

The purpose of this study was to describe seed dispersal patterns of woolly monkeys (Lagothrix lagothricha) in terms of dispersal quantity and two factors related to dispersal quality: germination rates of dispersed seeds and the distance of dispersal to parental trees. The possible influence of retention time, travel distance, seed size, activity patterns, and fruit abundance on dispersal distance was also analyzed. Observations on activity, diet, daily movements, and seed dispersal were made on focal individuals of a group of woolly monkeys at a tropical rain forest in Tinigua National Park (Colombia). Sixty hours of focal samples per month were completed during 1 year. A total of 753 depositions were collected during the study. Each dropping contained seeds from an average of 2.68 different species (range 0 to 9). Collected depositions contained an underestimated total of 50,168 seeds (>1 mm). Given a population density of 30 individuals/km2, the woolly monkeys in the study area disperse more than 25,000 seeds/km2/day. These seeds belong to 112 different plant species. Germination rates of dispersed seeds are usually similar or higher than those of non-swallowed seeds. It was possible to determine dispersal distance in 264 cases when the focal animal was continuously followed from ingestion at the parental tree to deposition. Only 1% of these depositions landed in close proximity (<15 m) of the parental tree. It was very common that the droppings were deposited between 100 and 500 m from the parent tree, and up to 1.5 km. Higher retention times and longer travel distances were not correlated with increased dispersal distance. Two main reasons for this result were the prolonged and variable passage rates (avg=11.2 hr+/-6.5 SD.) and the circuitous routes of monkeys in this forest.     

Two ways of trapping seeds in alpine environments, Lapland, Sweden

Seed dispersal in two habitats was investigated in the mid-alpine Latnjajaure valley, in northernmost Swedish Lapland. The seed rain size was measured using artificial seed traps and natural snowbed at a heath and a meadow site, c. 1000 m a.s.l. The average seed rain size trapped in the snowbeds varied from 18 seeds m^-2 at the heath site, to 96 seeds m-² at the meadow site. On average, the heath trap station had 177 seeds m-² and the meadow station, 218 seeds m². At each site, the vegetation was inventoried within a circular area with a radius of 20 m. Overall, the species assembly in the seed rain reflected the surrounding vegetation. However, there were additional species in the seed rain as well. At the seed trap station on the wind-exposed heath, 78% of the seeds originated from sites outside the homogeneous vegetation around the trap. These seeds were dispersed from locations at least 150 m from the trap site. By trapping a higher number of species than artificial traps and a higher number of seeds per unit area, snowbeds served as effective 'seed traps'. However, the location of the sampling spot in the snowbed is crucial due to a decrease in seed density towards the edge. In this study, with the aim of trapping the main dispersing species in the area, the optimal artificial seed trap size appears to be - 1.5–2.0 m². There was also a positive correlation between the mean July and August temperature, the seed rain size, and the number of species found. Thus, through brief visits to remote locations, the study of seed dispersal can be accomplished effectively when snowbeds are present on the landscape.     

天然次生林中水曲柳种子的扩散格局

 种子扩散是种群动态中的一个关键环节,研究其扩散格局对了解种子库及更新格局有重要意义。于1999～2000年在天然次生林中选择样地并设置样带,共设取样点1376个,观察和估计了水曲柳(Fraxinus mandshurica)的种子雨格局。结果发现,母树附近,尤其是冠幅范围内,各方向的种子雨没有显著差别。但种子雨密度随距离有明显变化,冠幅范围内平均可达462～903个·m-2。距冠缘10～20 m急剧减少,为50～190个·m-2。72.5%～96.4%的种子散落在距母株树干10 m 的范围内。饱满种子顺风     

A modified drop-net method for sampling mobile epifauna on marine shallow sandy bottoms

The seasonal variations in numbers and biomass of the mobile epifauna of a shallow, sandy bay in Gullmar Fjord (Sweden) was investigated during 1976–1977 using the drop-net technique. Juvenile plaice, Pleuronectes platessa L., sand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus (Pallas), and brown shrimp Crangon crangon L. are the dominant epifaunal species. A net enclosing an area of 100 m² was used, and the organisms captured were collected with a small trawl. Three stations with a water depth≤ 1 m were regularly sampled with a total number of 73 drops. Maximum abundance was for plaice in June (6 ind m^-2), for the shrimp in July-August (61 ind m^-2), and for sand goby in September (2 ind m^-2). Standing stocks (dry wt) were 0.2, 1.5 and 0.2 g m^-2 respectively. Production estimates were based on seasonal changes in size frequency and information on specific growth rates. The production rate was for plaice (0-group) 0.3 g m^-2 yr^-1, for the shrimp 1.5, and for sand goby 0.2 g m^-2 yr^-1. Reliable estimates of the absolute abundance can be derived from the mean catch per unit area only when the efficiency of the fishing gear is known. After 6 hauls with the trawl in the drop-net enclosure more than 85% of the shrimps were caught and after the fifteenth haul less than 1% were still left. The fishing efficiency of a push-net in relation to the drop-net was for the shrimp 50%, for plaice 35% and for sand goby 17%.     

Dandelion Seed Dispersal: The Horizontal Wind Speed Does Not Matter for Long-Distance Dispersal - it is Updraft!

Abstract: Long-distance dispersal of seeds (LDD) surely affects most ecological and evolutionary processes related to plant species. Hence, numerous attempts to quantify LDD have been made and, especially for wind dispersal, several simulation models have been developed. However, the mechanisms promoting LDD by wind still remain ambiguous and the effects of different weather conditions on LDD, although recognized as important, have only rarely been investigated. Here we examine the influence of wind speed and updrafts on dispersal of dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale agg.), a typical wind-dispersed herb of open habitats. We used PAPPUS, a weather-sensitive mechanistic simulation model of wind dispersal, which considers frequency distribution of weather conditions during the period the simulation refers to. A simulation for the 4-month shedding period of dandelion shows that high wind speed does not promote LDD. In contrast, vertical turbulence, especially convective updrafts, are of overwhelming importance. Mainly caused by updrafts, in the simulations more than 0.05 % of dandelion seeds were dispersed beyond 100 m, a distance commonly used to define LDD. We conclude that long-distance dispersal of seeds of herbaceous species with falling velocities < 0.5 - 1.0 ms^-1 is mainly caused by convective updrafts.     

Spatial–temporal distribution of ornithochorous seeds from an Elaeagnus umbellata community dominating a riparian habitat

The dispersal efficiency and potential distribution of ornithochorous seeds of Elaeagnus umbellata in a riparian habitat were evaluated to clarify this species' establishment site in relation to the disturbance regime of the floodplain. Fruit removal by avian frugivores was monitored using fruit bags, and the spatial distribution of excreted seeds was quantified by seed traps set randomly on a gravel bar as an isolated seed source in the Yoshino River throughout an autumn fruiting season. Although more than 45% of the fruits remained on the twigs in the fruit bags, almost all fruits on the control twigs without fruit bags were exploited by the beginning of January. The fruit removal rate and seed dispersal distance were positively correlated with an increase in wintering bird species and their abundance. Intact bird‐dispersed seeds of E. umbellata were trapped within a 400‐m range and damaged seeds were limited to traps set within 50 m from the seed source. Frugivore behavior, such as feces excretion on rocks near water drinking sites and perching on surrounding woodland, greatly influenced the spatial and temporal dispersal pattern of the seed rain. In the present study, the avian frugivores showed upstream seed dispersal; thus, in years with stochastic autumnal floods, secondary dispersal via hydrochory downstream may be facilitated. The intensive seed dispersal in E. umbellata indicates that the present distribution of parent trees in the restricted elevation range of the gravel bars is the result of survival through disturbance, rather than seed dispersal limitation.     

Cheek-pouch dispersal of seeds by Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island, Japan

Seed dispersal by Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata yakui) via cheek-pouch was studied in a warm temperate evergreen forest on Yakushima Island. Plant list was compiled based on a study during 1986–1995, of which troops of monkeys have been habituated without artificial feeding. We followed the well-habituated monkeys in 1993 and 1994 to observe the feeding behavior and their treatments of fruits and seeds, and collected seeds dispersed by monkeys to record the distance carried from the mother trees. We checked the difference of germination ratio between seeds dispersed via cheek-pouch and seeds taken from mother trees by sowing experiments. Seeds and acorns of 22 species were observed to be dispersed via cheek-pouch of monkeys. Among them, three species with acorns were never dispersed via feces, and 15 species with drupes were seldom dispersed via feces. Plant species of which seeds are dispersed only via cheek-pouch had larger seeds than those of dispersed both via cheek-pouch and via feces, and typically had only one or two seeds in a fruit. As for one of cheek-pouch dispersal species,Persea thunbergii, the mean distance when seeds were carried from the mother trees via cheek-pouch was 19.7 m, and the maximum distance was as long as 105 m although more than 80% of seeds were dispersed within 30 m from mother trees. And 82% of seeds dispersed via cheek-pouch germinated. The easy separation of seeds from other parts of the fruit seems to facilitate cheek-pouch dispersal more than dispersal via feces. Cheek-pouch dispersal by monkeys has possibly enhanced the natural selection for larger seeds which bring forth larger seedlings with high shade-tolerance. In conclusion, cheek-pouch dispersal by monkeys is quite an important mode for trees in the mature stand in a warm temperate evergreen forest on Yakushima Island.     

Consequences of frugivore diversity for seed dispersal, seedling establishment and the spatial pattern of seedlings and trees

Many plants depend on frugivorous animals for the dispersal of their seeds. However, it is only poorly known whether regional differences in frugivore diversity have consequences for seed dispersal, seedling establishment, and the spatial distribution of seedlings and trees. This comparative study of seed dispersal investigated the consequences of regional differences in frugivore diversity for two tree species of the genus Commiphora. C. harveyi was studied in South Africa where avian frugivore diversity is high, C. guillaumini was studied in Madagascar where the avian frugivore community is depauperate. At both study sites, the percentages of handled and dispersed seeds in Commiphora trees were quantified by fruit traps, and visitation rates, seed handling rates and dispersal rates were quantified for each animal species for two consecutive years. Seedlings were mapped and the spatial distribution of trees quantified. At both study sites, fruits were mainly eaten by birds. The total percentage of dispersed seeds in South Africa was significantly higher than in Madagascar (70.8% vs. 7.9%) because there was a lack of effective dispersers that swallowed seeds in Madagascar. Seed dispersal benefit, i.e. the increase in the probability of becoming established as a seedling away from parent trees due to dispersal was much higher in Madagascar (80 times higher probability) compared to South Africa (6 times higher). Corresponding with the different dispersal percentages, seedlings in South Africa were found at relatively large distances from the nearest Commiphora tree (median distance=21.0 m), whereas in Madagascar seedlings were found mostly under and close to the nearest Commiphora tree (median distance=0.9 m). Finally, Commiphora trees in the Malagasy study site were clumped, but were more randomly distributed in the South African study site. These results suggest that regional differences in frugivore diversity and behaviour strongly affect seed dispersal of trees, seedling establishment and the spatial distribution of seedlings and trees.     

LIGHT-DEPENDENT GROWTH, DARK SURVIVAL, AND GLUCOSE UPTAKE BY CRYPTOPHYTES ISOLATED FROM A FRESHWATER CHEMOCLINE

Clones of Cryptomonas phaseolus Skuja , Cryptomonas rostratiformis ( Skuja ) Skuja in Huber-Pestalozi, and Cryptomonas undulata Gervais were isolated from the deep chlorophyll maximum near the oxic/anoxic boundary layer of the mesoeutrophic lake Schlachtensee, Germany. Different autecological features of these species were studied in batch culture experiments . Cryptomonas cf . ovata Ehrenberg and Chroomonas sp. that never dominated in the deep chlorophyll layer were also isolated from Schlachtensee to study their light-dependent growth in comparison to the deep-living species . Cryptomonas undulata, C. cf . ovata, and C. phaseolus had a very low light compensation point ( 5–7 μmol.m^-2.s^-1 ), whereas the growth rate of Chroomonas sp. and C. rostratiformis was positive above 16 and 24 μmol.m^-2.s^-1 . Cryptomonas phaseclus and Chroomonas sp. became photoinhibited above photon flux densities of 92 and 116 μmol.m^-2.s^-1 . Cryptomonas rostratiformis, C. cf . ovata, and C. undulata reached a maximum growth rate at a considerably higher photon flux density (198–250 μmol.m^-2.s^-1 ). Cryptomonas phaseolus grew fastest under light-limiting conditions . Chyptomonas phaseolus and C. undulata were best able to suruive prolonged periods of darkness . Cryptomonas phaseolus, C. rostratiformis, and C. undulata did not show any uptake of fluorescent latex beads. When labeled glucose was provided in naturally occurring concentrations, carbon uptake by C. phaseolus, C. rostratiformis, and C. undulata was negligibly small in comparison to cellular carbon content. I suggest that the adaptation to a low-light environment is an important preadaptation for the dominance of C. phaseolus and C. undulata near the freshwater chemocline .     

Effects of light and temperature on the cell size and some biochemical components in two freshwater cryptophytes

The effects of light and temperature on cell size and cellular composition (chlorophyll, protein, carbohydrate) of two freshwater cryptophytes were studied with batch cultures. Neither of the species had a constant cell size but the size varied with growth conditions. At each temperature the smallest cells were recorded at the lowest experimental photon flux density. The smallest cells of Cryptomonas 979/67 had an average volume of 232 μm³ and the largest ones 1 020 μm³. In Cryptomonas 979/62 the smallest and largest cells measured 4 306 μm³ and 12 450 μm³. Both species increased their cellular chlorophyll content when PFB dropped below 110–120 μmol m^-2 s^-1. The highest and lowest chlorophyll contents of 979/67 were 7.45 fg μm^-3 and 0.55 fg μm^-2 respectively. For 979/62 the corresponding values were 10.23 fg μm^-3 and 0.93 fg μm^-3. In both species the protein content remained stable at PFDs higher than 110–120 μmol m^-2 S^-1. The highest content of protein measured in 979/67 was 638 fg μm^-3 and the lowest 147 fg μm^-3. For 979/62 these values were 1 036 fg μm^-3 and 148 fg μm^-3 respectively. The carbohydrate results were less clear and no pattern either in response to photon flux density or temperature was obvious. The lowest and highest contents recorded for 979/67 were 62 fg μm^-3 and 409 fg μ^-3 and for 979162, 36 fg μm^-3 and 329 fg μm^-3     

Seed dispersal by animals: exact identification of source trees with endocarp DNA microsatellites

A long-standing challenge in studies of seed dispersal by animal frugivores has been the characterization of the spatial relationships between dispersed seeds and the maternal plants, i.e. the seed shadow. The difficulties to track unambiguously the origin of frugivore-dispersed seeds in natural communities has been considered an unavoidable limitation of the research field and precluded a robust analysis of the direct consequences of zoochory. Here we report that the multilocus genotype at simple sequence repeat (SSR; microsatellite) loci of the woody endocarp, a tissue of maternal origin, provides an unequivocal genetic fingerprint of the source tree. By comparing the endocarp genotype against the complete set of genotypes of reproductive trees in the population, we could unambiguously identify the source tree for 82.1% of the seeds collected in seed traps and hypothesize that the remaining 17.9% of sampled seeds come from other populations. Identification of the source tree for Prunus mahaleb seeds dispersed by frugivores revealed a marked heterogeneity in the genetic composition of the seed rain in different microhabitats, with a range of 1-5 distinct maternal trees contributing seeds to a particular landscape patch. Within-population dispersal distances ranged between 0 and 316 m, with up to 62% of the seeds delivered within 15 m of the source trees. Long distance dispersal events, detected by the exclusion of all reproductive trees in the population, accounted for up to 17.9% of the seeds sampled. Our results indicate strong distance limitation of seed delivery combined with infrequent long-distance dispersal events, extreme heterogeneity in the landscape pattern of genetic makeup, and a marked mosaic of multiple parentage for the seeds delivered to a particular patch.     

Fruit Removal and Natural Seed Dispersal of the Brazil Nut Tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in Central Amazonia,Brazil

Experimental approaches to study seed dispersal of the Brazil nut tree have hitherto relied on exposed seeds deposited on the forest floor. Here we use a new method to study the natural dispersal by large rodents such as agoutis; tracking experimentally manipulated and tagged fruits containing individually marked seeds. Fruit manipulation did not deter agoutis from handling fruits. We found that agoutis usually moved intact fruits away from their original location below the parent tree before either hiding them or gnawing through the pericarp to access the seeds inside. Most fruits were moved to distances of 15–30 m from their original position, but some fruits could be taken as far as 60 m. A large number of seeds extracted from manipulated fruits appeared to be eaten immediately. Only 27 out of 1740 experimental seeds were found buried in shallow caches, generally within 5 m of the opened fruit. Fruit removal distance accounted for a disproportionate amount of total seed movement and seeds in the current study were dispersed significantly farther than in a previous experiment using exposed seeds, suggesting that classic dispersal experiments of this character may severely underestimate seed dispersal distances. We therefore conclude that the new method provides a more realistic and accurate approach to investigate natural seed dispersal of Brazil nuts and that the removal of fruits from underneath parent trees before being opened is the key to the significantly increased distances at which seeds are dispersed. Abstract in Portuguese is available at http://www.blackwell‐synergy.com/loi/btp .     

Gas exchange parameters, water relations and carbohydrate partitioning in leaves of field-grown Prunus domestica following fruit removal

The effect of fruit removal on gas exchange, water relations, chlorophyll and non-structural carbohydrate content of leaves from mature, field-grown plum trees ( Prunus domestica L. cv. Stanley) was determined over 2 consecutive growing seasons. Removal of fruits during stage II of fruit development decreased CO₂ assimilation rate within 24 h from 12.6 to 8.5 μmol m^-2 s^-1 in 1986, and from 12.1 to 10.2 μmol m^-2 s^-1 in 1987. Depression of net photosynthesis persisted for at least 5 days and was greatest in the early afternoon. Recovery of the CO₂ assimilation rate to pretreatment levels coincided in defruited trees with vegetative growth that was more than 5-fold that of fruiting trees in the first 6 weeks after fruit removal in 1986. Estimated photorespiration was similar in both fruiting and defruited trees. The stomatal contribution to the decrease of CO₂ assimilation rate, calculated from assimilation/intercellular CO₂ curves, ranged from 31 to 46%. Defruiting did not affect leaf water potential, but decreased leaf osmotic potential. Leaf levels of chlorophyll, fructose, glucose, sorbitol and sucrose were not affected by defruiting, whereas starch content increased up to 51% in leaves of defruited trees within 24 h after fruit removal. However, because of the small starch pool present in plum leaves (<1.9% dry weight) it is unlikely that starch accumulation was responsible for the observed decline in CO₂ assimilation rate after fruit removal. The decrease of CO₂ assimilation rate is discussed in relation to the hypothesis of assimilate demand regulating photosynthesis through a feedback mechanism.     

Screening and selection of surfactant-producing bacteria from waste lubricating oil

Forty-four strains with the ability to grow on waste lubricating oil as sole carbon source were isolated from soil-contaminated samples and identified. Of these, four Rhodococcus and one Bacillus strain were selected for their capacity to lower the surface tension of culture medium from 55 mN m^-1 to less than or equal to 40 mN m^-1 and the interfacial tension between the culture medium and kerosene from 21 mN m^-1 to less than 5 mN m^-1, respectively. The surface-active compounds, identified by means of TLC and specific reagents, from cultures of Rhodococcus strains and Bacillus were glycolipids and lipopeptide, respectively. The percentage loss of waste lubricating oil after 120 h of incubation ranged from 7.87% to 45.8% depending on the strain selected compared with uninoculated control. Decreases in paraffinic compounds and accumulation of new products, mainly with amide groups, were observed by direct and differential infrared spectrometry when selected strains grew on waste lubricating oil.     

Chlorophyll fluorescence measured using the Fraunhofer line-depth principle and relationship to photosynthetic rate in the field

Abstract. A field study was conducted to determine the relationship of solar-excited chlorophyll a fluorescence to net CO₂ assimilation rate in attached leaves. The Fraunhofer line-depth principle was used to measure fluorescence at 656.3 nm wavelength while leaves remained exposed to full sunlight and normal atmospheric pressures of CO₂ and O₂. Fluorescence induction kinetics were observed when leaves were exposed to sunlight after 10 min in darkness. Subsequently, fluorescence varied inversely with assimilation rate. In the C₄ Zea mays , fluorescence decreased from 2.5 to 0.8 mW m^-2 nm^-1 as CO₂ assimilation rate increased from 1 to 8 μmol m^-2 s^-1 (r²= 0.520). In the C₃ Liquidambar styraciflua and Pinus taeda , fluorescence decreased from 6 to 2 mW m^-2 nm^-1 as assimilation rate increased from 2 to 5 or 0 to 2 μmol m^-2 s^-1 (r²= 0.44 and 0.45. respectively). The Fraunhofer line-depth principle enables the simultaneous measurement of solar-excited fluorescence and CO₂ assimilation rate in individual leaves, but also at larger scales. Thus, it may contribute significantly to field studies of the relationship of fluorescence to photosynthesis.     

Patterns of pollen dispersal in a small population of Pinus sylvestris L. revealed by total-exclusion paternity analysis

Patterns of pollen dispersal were investigated in a small, isolated, relict population of Pinus sylvestris L., consisting of 36 trees. A total-exclusion battery comprising four chloroplast and two nuclear microsatellites (theoretical paternity exclusion probability EP=0.996) was used to assign paternity to 813 seeds, collected from 34 trees in the stand. Long-distance pollen immigration accounted for 4.3% of observed matings. Self-fertilization rate was very high (0.25), compared with typical values in more widespread populations of the species. The average effective pollen dispersal distance within the stand was 48 m (or 83 m excluding selfs). Half of effective pollen was dispersed within 11 m, and 7% beyond 200 m. A strong correlation was found between the distance to the closest tree and the mean mating-distance calculated for single-tree progenies. The effective pollen dispersal distribution showed a leptokurtic shape, with a large and significant departure from that expected under uniform dispersal. A maximum-likelihood procedure was used to fit an individual pollen dispersal distance probability density function (dispersal kernel). The estimated kernel indicated fairly leptokurtic dispersal (shape parameter b=0.67), with an average pollen dispersal distance of 135 m, and 50% of pollen dispersed beyond 30 m. A marked directionality pattern of pollen dispersal was found, mainly caused by the uneven distribution of trees, coupled with restricted dispersal and unequal male success. Overall, results show that the number and distribution of potential pollen donors in small populations may strongly influence the patterns of effective pollen dispersal.     

Host Search behaviour by Rhagoletis pomonella files: inter-tree movement patterns in response to wind-borne fruit volatiles under filed conditions

Abstract. Responses of Rhagoletis pomonella (Wash) (Diptera: Tephritidae) to synthetic host fruit violates were studied in the field. Individually marked females were released in the centre of a 25 m² patch containing twenty-five host trees ( Crataegus mollis var, toba ) and followed as they moved within and between trees. Fly response to three experimental conditions was studied: (1) 'clean' air; (2) synthetic host fruit violates (apple) permeating the patch; and (3) a single point source of odour placed c 1m away from the edge of the patch. Files in a patch permeated with host odour moved faster, exhibited more straightened-out moves, and reached the edges of the patch more quickly than those exposed to clean air. Flies exposed to a point source of odour exhibited clear orientation responses, arriving consistently at the tree harbouring the source of odour. Odour exposure was intermittent and usually brief ( c . 20s^-1 exposure) with intervals between exposure periods averaging 103s. Wind speed and direction were highly variable. Flies moved during wind ranging in speed form 0.5 to 4.4 m s^-1, with their activity being greatest at winds below 2m s^-1. Strong winds (>3.5 ms^-1) either arrested movement or enhanced downwind displacement. Our observations tend to support the 'series-of-steps' hypothesis reviewed by Gibson & Brandy (1985) as a mechanism of close-range host location (1-5m from odour source). Our findings are discussed with respect to theoretical and practical implications of insect orientation mechanisms to odours, dispersal, and control strategies.     

Heterostyly and gene-flow in Menyanthes trifoliata L. (Menyanthaceae)

NIC LUGHADHA, E. M. & PARNELL, J. A. N., 1989. Heterostyly and gene-flow in Menyanthes trifoliata L. (Menyanthaceae). Menyanthes trifoliata is shown to be a self-incompatible heterostylous species with a suite of associated pollen and gynoecium dimorphisms. These features may promote legitimate pollination. Analysis of a natural population showed substantial pollen inviability, a preponderance of illegitimate pollen on stigmas and a possible asymmetry of pollen flow. Mean pollen travel was estimated as 2.6 m by counting legitimate grains on stigmas whose distance from the nearest source of legitimate pollen was known. Direct field and laboratory measurement indicated mean seed travel of <0.2m. The density of flowering spikes varied greatly within the studied colony of Menyanthes , with a mean of 0.93 m^-2. Using suitable corrections the genetically effective density was estimated as between 0.04 and 4.4 m^-2. Crossing experiments indicated that Menyanthes is fully outcrossed (r=1). The neighbourhood area was estimated as 10–15 m² while neighbourhood size ranged from less than one to sixty-five. Some published neighbourhood estimates are revised with the results for Menyanthes being at the lower end of the range. If the genetically effective density were estimated more accurately, neighbourhood estimates would likely be lower still. It is concluded that what is generally referred to as a population of Menyanthes , may actually represent many evolutionary units.     

GROWTH OF HETEROSIGMA CARTERAE (RAPHIDOPHYCEAE) ON NITRATE AND AMMONIUM AT THREE PHOTON FLUX DENSITIES: EVIDENCE FOR N STRESS IN NITRATE-GROWING CELLS

The marine alga Heterosigma carterae Hulburt (Raphidophyta) was grown in N-limiting batch cultures using either nitrate or ammonium as the N source, at photon flux densities (PFDs) of 50, 200, and 350 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 in a 12:12 h LD cycle. Carbon content could be estimated from biovolume (μg C = 0.278 × nL; R = 0.98) but not reliably from pigment content. During exponential growth, ammonium-grown cells (in comparison with nitrate-grown cells at the same PFD) attained higher growth rates by at least 20%, contained more N, and had a lower C:N ratio, higher concentrations of intracellular free amino acids, and higher ratios of glutamine: glutamate (Gln: Glu) and asparagine: aspartate (Asn:Asp). Growth was nearly light-saturated on ammonium at 200 μmol·m^-2·s^-1 (cell-specific growth rate of 1.2 d^-1) but probably not saturated in nitrate-grown cells at 350 μmol·m^-2·s^-1. PFD did not affect Gln: Glu or Asn: Asp for a given N source. These results indicate that the nitrate-growing cells were more N-stressed than those using ammonium (which in contrast were relatively C-stressed) and that this organism would show an enhanced competitive advantage against other species when supplied with a transient supply of ammonium rather than nitrate .     

Habitat-related dispersal in the rock-dwelling land snail Chondrina clienta

Habitat type may influence dispersal in a variety of animal species We examined dispersal in the rock-dwelling land snail Chondrina clienta m a limestone pavement, on vertical rock walls, a pile of stones and a stone wall on the Baltic island of Oland, Sweden Dispersal was estimated by recording movements of marked C clienta in natural populations over 3 yr Dispersal differed significantly between habitat types The largest distances dispersed were recorded in the limestone pavement (264 cm yr¹, median distance) and on vertical rock walls (96 cm yr¹), simple habitats for travelling snails Dispersal was less in the stone pile (68 cm yr¹) and on the stone wall (88 cm yr¹) that are more complex habitats with multiple layers of pieces of stones Distances dispersed also varied among vertical rock walls, indicating that other factors such as exposure of the rock surface and size of the habitat may be important in determining snail dispersal The results of two experiments indicated that grassland vegetation may inhibit dispersal in C clienta , and that isolated stones covered with lichens might serve as stepping stones for dispersing snails in otherwise unsuitable grassland Snail size (age) influenced distances moved, but might only be important in determining daily movements, not dispersal over longer periods Dispersal in C clienta is habitat-specific and cannot be characterized by a single parameter