Beclin1-binding UVRAG targets the class C Vps complex to coordinate autophagosome maturation and endocytic trafficking

Autophagic and endocytic pathways are tightly regulated membrane rearrangement processes that are crucial for homeostasis, development and disease. Autophagic cargo is delivered from autophagosomes to lysosomes for degradation through a complex process that topologically resembles endosomal maturation. Here, we report that a Beclin1-binding autophagic tumour suppressor, UVRAG, interacts with the class C Vps complex, a key component of the endosomal fusion machinery. This interaction stimulates Rab7 GTPase activity and autophagosome fusion with late endosomes/lysosomes, thereby enhancing delivery and degradation of autophagic cargo. Furthermore, the UVRAG-class-C-Vps complex accelerates endosome-endosome fusion, resulting in rapid degradation of endocytic cargo. Remarkably, autophagosome/endosome maturation mediated by the UVRAG-class-C-Vps complex is genetically separable from UVRAG-Beclin1-mediated autophagosome formation. This result indicates that UVRAG functions as a multivalent trafficking effector that regulates not only two important steps of autophagy - autophagosome formation and maturation - but also endosomal fusion, which concomitantly promotes transport of autophagic and endocytic cargo to the degradative compartments.     

Rab蛋白家族在神经类疾病中的作用

细胞内膜囊泡运输是一个复杂的通路网络,Rab GTPases是膜囊泡运输的主要调节剂,通常被认为是细胞内吞和分泌系统中各种细胞器和囊泡的特异性标记和识别物。与Rab蛋白相关的轴突运输、内体运输发生障碍是造成神经退行性疾病的重要原因之一。本文主要介绍了Rab蛋白在多种神经退行性疾病病理机制中的作用机理与调控机制,同时讨论了线粒体和胶质细胞功能异常与Rab蛋白之间的关联。深入探究Rab蛋白的作用机制对人类神经性疾病的早期诊断和治疗具有潜在的指导意义。     

A Rab11/Rip11 protein complex regulates apical membrane trafficking via recycling endosomes

Rab11 is a GTPase that regulates endosomal trafficking to apical plasma membrane domains in polarized epithelial cells. We report the identification of a novel Rab11 effector, Rip11. Rip11 is enriched in polarized epithelial cells where, like Rab11, it is localized to subapical recycling endosomes (ARE) and the apical plasma membrane. Using various transport assays, we demonstrate that Rip11 is important for protein trafficking from ARE to the apical plasma membrane. Rip11 is recruited to ARE by binding to Rab11 as well as through a Mg(2+)-dependent interaction of its C2 domain with neutral phospholipids. The association of Rip11 with membranes is regulated by a phosphorylation and dephosphorylation cycle. We propose a model whereby the Rab11/Rip 11 complex regulates vesicle targeting from the ARE.     

Rab4 affects both recycling and degradative endosomal trafficking

The small GTPases Rab4, Rab5 and Rab7 are endosomal proteins which play important roles in the regulation of various stages of endosomal trafficking. Rab4 and Rab5 have both been localized to early endosomes and have been shown to control recycling and endosomal fusion, respectively. Rab7, a marker of the late endosomal compartment, is involved in the regulation of the late endocytic pathway. Here, we compare the role of Rab4, Rab5 and Rab7 in early and late endosomal trafficking in HeLa cells monitoring ligand uptake, recycling and degradation. Expression of the Rab4 dominant negative mutant (Rab4AS22N) leads to a significant reduction in both recycling and degradation while, as expected, Rab7 mutants exclusively affect epidermal growth factor (EGF) and low density lipoprotein degradation. As also expected, expression of the dominant negative Rab5 mutant perturbs internalization kinetics and affects both recycling and degradation. Expression of Rab4WT and dominant positive mutant (Rab4AQ67L) changes dramatically the morphology of the transferrin compartment leading to the formation of membrane tubules. These transferrin positive tubules display swellings (varicosities) some of which are positive for early endosomal antigen-1 and contain EGF. We propose that the Rab4GTPase is important for the function of the early sorting endosomal compartment, affecting trafficking along both recycling and degradative pathways.     

A Highlights from MBoC Selection: Rab21 in enterocytes participates in intestinal epithelium maintenance

Membrane trafficking is defined as the vesicular transport of proteins into, out of, and throughout the cell. In intestinal enterocytes, defects in endocytic/recycling pathways result in impaired function and are linked to diseases. However, how these trafficking pathways regulate intestinal tissue homeostasis is poorly understood. Using the Drosophila intestine as an in vivo system, we investigated enterocyte-specific functions for the early endosomal machinery. We focused on Rab21, which regulates specific steps in early endosomal trafficking. Depletion of Rab21 in enterocytes led to abnormalities in intestinal morphology, with deregulated cellular equilibrium associated with a gain in mitotic cells and increased cell death. Increases in apoptosis and Yorkie signaling were responsible for compensatory proliferation and tissue inflammation. Using an RNA interference screen, we identified regulators of autophagy and membrane trafficking that phenocopied Rab21 knockdown. We further showed that Rab21 knockdown-induced hyperplasia was rescued by inhibition of epidermal growth factor receptor signaling. Moreover, quantitative proteomics identified proteins affected by Rab21 depletion. Of these, we validated changes in apolipoprotein ApoLpp and the trehalose transporter Tret1-1, indicating roles for enterocyte Rab21 in lipid and carbohydrate homeostasis, respectively. Our data shed light on an important role for early endosomal trafficking, and Rab21, in enterocyte-mediated intestinal epithelium maintenance.     

The Rab5 effector EEA1 interacts directly with syntaxin-6.

The fusion of transport vesicles with their cognate target membranes, an essential event in intracellular membrane trafficking, is regulated by SNARE proteins and Rab GTPases. Rab GTPases are thought to act prior to SNAREs in vesicle docking, but the exact biochemical relationship between the two classes of molecules is not known. We recently identified the early endosomal autoantigen EEA1 as an effector of Rab5 in endocytic membrane fusion. Here we demonstrate that EEA1 interacts directly and specifically with syntaxin-6, a SNARE implicated in trans-Golgi network to early endosome trafficking. The binding site for syntaxin-6 overlaps with that of Rab5-GTP at the C terminus of EEA1. Syntaxin-6 and EEA1 were found to colocalize extensively on early endosomes, although syntaxin-6 is present in the trans-Golgi network as well. Our results indicate that SNAREs can interact directly with Rab effectors, and suggest that EEA1 may participate in trans-Golgi network to endosome as well as in endocytic membrane traffic.     

Neuron Specific Rab4 Effector GRASP-1 Coordinates Membrane Specialization and Maturation of Recycling Endosomes

The endosomal pathway in neuronal dendrites is essential for membrane receptor trafficking and proper synaptic function and plasticity. However, the molecular mechanisms that organize specific endocytic trafficking routes are poorly understood. Here, we identify GRIP-associated protein-1 (GRASP-1) as a neuron-specific effector of Rab4 and key component of the molecular machinery that coordinates recycling endosome maturation in dendrites. We show that GRASP-1 is necessary for AMPA receptor recycling, maintenance of spine morphology, and synaptic plasticity. At the molecular level, GRASP-1 segregates Rab4 from EEA1/Neep21/Rab5-positive early endosomal membranes and coordinates the coupling to Rab11-labelled recycling endosomes by interacting with the endosomal SNARE syntaxin 13. We propose that GRASP-1 connects early and late recycling endosomal compartments by forming a molecular bridge between Rab-specific membrane domains and the endosomal SNARE machinery. The data uncover a new mechanism to achieve specificity and directionality in neuronal membrane receptor trafficking.     

SNX-BAR-mediated endosome tubulation is co-ordinated with endosome maturation

Endosomal sorting is essential for cell homeostasis. Proteins targeted for degradation are retained in the maturing endosome vacuole while others are recycled to the cell surface or sorted to the biosynthetic pathway via tubular transport carriers. Sorting nexin (SNX) proteins containing a BAR (for Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs) domain are key regulators of phosphoinositide-mediated, tubular-based endosomal sorting, but how such sorting is co-ordinated with endosomal maturation is not known. Here, using well-defined Rab GTPases as endosomal compartment markers, we have analyzed the localization of SNX1 [endosome-to-trans-Golgi network (TGN) transport as part of the SNX-BAR-retromer complex], SNX4 (cargo-recycling from endosomes to the plasma membrane) and SNX8 (endosomes-to-TGN trafficking in a retromer-independent manner). We show that these SNX-BARs are primarily localized to early endosomes, but display the highest frequency of tubule formation at the moment of early-to-late endosome transition: the Rab5-to-Rab7 switch. Perturbing this switch shifts SNX-BAR tubulation to early endosomes, resulting in SNX1-decorated tubules that lack retromer components VPS26 and VPS35, suggesting that both early and late endosomal characteristics of the endosome are important for SNX-BAR-retromer-tubule formation. We also establish that SNX4, but not SNX1 and SNX8, is associated with the Rab11-recycling endosomes and that a high frequency of SNX4-mediated tubule formation is observed as endosomes undergo Rab4-to-Rab11 transition. Our study therefore provides evidence for fine-tuning between the processes of endosomal maturation and the formation of endosomal tubules. As tubulation is required for SNX1-, SNX4- and SNX8-mediated sorting, these data reveal a previously unrecognized co-ordination between maturation and tubular-based sorting.     

Intracellular membrane trafficking pathways in bone-resorbing osteoclasts revealed by cloning and subcellular localization studies of small GTP-binding rab proteins

A variety of intracellular membrane trafficking pathways are involved in establishing the polarization of resorbing osteoclasts and regulating bone resorption activities. Small GTP-binding proteins of rab family have been implicated as key regulators of membrane trafficking in mammalian cells. Here we used a RT-PCR-based cloning method and confocal laser scanning microscopy to explore the expression array and subcellular localization of rab proteins in osteoclasts. Rab1B, rab4B, rab5C, rab7, rab9, rab11B, and rab35 were identified from rat osteoclasts in this study. Rab5C may be associated with early endosomes, while rab11B is localized at perinuclear recycling compartments and may function in the ruffled border membrane turnover and osteoclast motility. Interestingly, late endosomal rabs, rab7, and rab9, were found to localize at the ruffled border membrane indicating a late endosomal nature of this specialized plasma membrane domain in resorbing osteoclasts. This also suggests that late endocytotic pathways may play an important role in the secretion of lysosomal enzymes, such as cathepsin K, during bone resorption.     

Modulation of cellular cholesterol transport and homeostasis by Rab11

To analyze the contribution of vesicular trafficking pathways in cellular cholesterol transport we examined the effects of selected endosomal Rab proteins on cholesterol distribution by filipin staining. Transient overexpression of Rab11 resulted in prominent accumulation of free cholesterol in Rab11-positive organelles that sequestered transferrin receptors and internalized transferrin. Sphingolipids were selectively redistributed as pyrene-sphingomyelin and sulfatide cosequestered with Rab11-positive endosomes, whereas globotriaosyl ceramide and GM2 ganglioside did not. Rab11 overexpression did not perturb the transport of 1,1′-dioctadecyl-3,3,3′,3′-tetramethyl-indocarbocyanine-perchlorate–labeled low-density lipoprotein (LDL) to late endosomes or the Niemann-Pick type C1 (NPC1)-induced late endosomal cholesterol clearance in NPC patient cells. However, Rab11 overexpression inhibited cellular cholesterol esterification in an LDL-independent manner. This effect could be overcome by introducing cholesterol to the plasma membrane by using cyclodextrin as a carrier. These results suggest that in Rab11-overexpressing cells, deposition of cholesterol in recycling endosomes results in its impaired esterification, presumably due to defective recycling of cholesterol to the plasma membrane. The findings point to the importance of the recycling endosomes in regulating cholesterol and sphingolipid trafficking and cellular cholesterol homeostasis.     

MICAL-like1 mediates epidermal growth factor receptor endocytosis

Small GTPase Rabs are required for membrane protein sorting/delivery to precise membrane domains. Rab13 regulates epithelial tight junction assembly and polarized membrane transport. Here we report that Molecule Interacting with CasL (MICAL)-like1 (MICAL-L1) interacts with GTP-Rab13 and shares a similar domain organization with MICAL. MICAL-L1 has a calponin homology (CH), LIM, proline rich and coiled-coil domains. It is associated with late endosomes. Time-lapse video microscopy shows that green fluorescent protein-Rab7 and mcherry-MICAL-L1 are present within vesicles that move rapidly in the cytoplasm. Depletion of MICAL-L1 by short hairpin RNA does not alter the distribution of a late endosome/lysosome-associated protein but affects the trafficking of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Overexpression of MICAL-L1 leads to the accumulation of EGFR in the late endosomal compartment. In contrast, knocking down MICAL-L1 results in the distribution of internalized EGFR in vesicles spread throughout the cytoplasm and promotes its degradation. Our data suggest that the N-terminal CH domain associates with the C-terminal Rab13 binding domain (RBD) of MICAL-L1. The binding of Rab13 to RBD disrupts the CH/RBD interaction, and may induce a conformational change in MICAL-L1, promoting its activation. Our results provide novel insights into the MICAL-L1/Rab protein complex that can regulate EGFR trafficking at late endocytic pathways.     

Starvation‐induced MTMR13 and RAB21 activity regulates VAMP8 to promote autophagosome–lysosome fusion

Autophagy, the process for recycling cytoplasm in the lysosome, depends on membrane trafficking. We previously identified Drosophila Sbf as a Rab21 guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that acts with Rab21 in endosomal trafficking. Here, we show that Sbf/MTMR13 and Rab21 have conserved functions required for starvation‐induced autophagy. Depletion of Sbf/MTMR13 or Rab21 blocked endolysosomal trafficking of VAMP8, a SNARE required for autophagosome–lysosome fusion. We show that starvation induces Sbf/MTMR13 GEF and RAB21 activity, as well as their induced binding to VAMP8 (or closest Drosophila homolog, Vamp7). MTMR13 is required for RAB21 activation, VAMP8 interaction and VAMP8 endolysosomal trafficking, defining a novel GEF‐Rab‐effector pathway. These results identify starvation‐responsive endosomal regulators and trafficking that tunes membrane demands with changing autophagy status.     

Rubicon and PLEKHM1 negatively regulate the endocytic/autophagic pathway via a novel Rab7-binding domain

The endocytic and autophagic pathways are involved in the membrane trafficking of exogenous and endogenous materials to lysosomes. However, the mechanisms that regulate these pathways are largely unknown. We previously reported that Rubicon, a Beclin 1-binding protein, negatively regulates both the autophagic and endocytic pathways by unidentified mechanisms. In this study, we performed database searches to identify potential Rubicon homologues that share the common C-terminal domain, termed the RH domain. One of them, PLEKHM1, the causative gene of osteopetrosis, also suppresses endocytic transport but not autophagosome maturation. Rubicon and PLEKHM1 specifically and directly interact with Rab7 via their RH domain, and this interaction is critical for their function. Furthermore, we show that Rubicon but not PLEKHM1 uniquely regulates membrane trafficking via simultaneously binding both Rab7 and PI3-kinase.     

Rab4GTPase modulates CFTR function by impairing channel expression at plasma membrane

Cystic fibrosis (CF), an autosomal recessive disorder, is caused by the disruption of biosynthesis or the function of a membrane cAMP-activated chloride channel, CFTR. CFTR regulatory mechanisms include recruitment of channel proteins to the cell surface from intracellular pools and by protein-protein interactions. Rab proteins are small GTPases involved in regulated trafficking controlling vesicle docking and fusion. Rab4 controls recycling events from endosome to the plasma membrane, fusion, and degradation. The colorectal cell line HT-29 natively expresses CFTR and responds to cAMP stimulation with an increase in CFTR-mediated currents. Rab4 over-expression in HT-29 cells inhibits both basal and cAMP-stimulated CFTR-mediated currents. GTPase-deficient Rab4Q67L and GDP locked Rab4S22N both inhibit channel activity, which appears characteristically different. Active status of Rab4 was confirmed by GTP overlay assay, while its expression was verified by Western blotting. The pull-down and immunoprecipitation experiments suggest that Rab4 physically interacts with CFTR through protein-protein interaction. Biotinylation with cell impermeant NHS-Sulfo-SS-Biotin implies that Rab4 impairs CFTR expression at cell surface. The enhanced cytosolic CFTR indicates that Rab4 expression restrains CFTR appearance at the cell membrane. The study suggests that Rab4 regulates the channel through multiple mechanisms that include protein-protein interaction, GTP/GDP exchange, and channel protein trafficking. We propose that Rab4 is a dynamic molecule with a significant role in CFTR function.     

Rab proteins: The key regulators of intracellular vesicle transport

Vesicular/membrane trafficking essentially regulates the compartmentalization and abundance of proteins within the cells and contributes in many signalling pathways. This membrane transport in eukaryotic cells is a complex process regulated by a large and diverse array of proteins. A large group of monomeric small GTPases; the Rabs are essential components of this membrane trafficking route. Most of the Rabs are ubiquitously expressed proteins and have been implicated in vesicle formation, vesicle motility/delivery along cytoskeleton elements and docking/fusion at target membranes through the recruitment of effectors. Functional impairments of Rabs affecting transport pathways manifest different diseases. Rab functions are accompanied by cyclical activation and inactivation of GTP-bound and GDP-bound forms between the cytosol and membranes which is regulated by upstream regulators. Rab proteins are characterized by their distinct sub-cellular localization and regulate a wide variety of endocytic, transcytic and exocytic transport pathways. Mutations of Rabs affect cell growth, motility and other biological processes.     

The proteasome alpha-subunit XAPC7 interacts specifically with Rab7 and late endosomes

Rab7 is a key regulatory protein governing early to late endocytic membrane transport. In this study the proteasome alpha-subunit XAPC7 (also known as PSMA7, RC6-1, and HSPC in mammals) was identified to interact specifically with Rab7 and was recruited to multivesicular late endosomes through this interaction. The protein interaction domains were localized to the C terminus of XAPC7 and the N terminus of Rab7. XAPC7 was not found on early or recycling endosomes, but could be recruited to recycling endosomes by expression of a Rab7-(1-174)Rab11-(160-202) chimera, establishing a central role for Rab7 in the membrane recruitment of XAPC7. Although XAPC7 could be shown to associate with membranes bearing ubiquitinated cargo, overexpression had no impact on steady-state ubiquitinated protein levels. Most notably, overexpression of XAPC7 was found to impair late endocytic transport of two different membrane proteins, including EGFR known to be highly dependent on ubiquitination and proteasome activity for proper endocytic sorting and lysosomal transport. Decreased late endocytic transport caused by XAPC7 overexpression was partially rescued by coexpression of wild-type Rab7, suggesting a negative regulatory role for XAPC7. Nevertheless, Rab7 itself was not subject to XAPC7-dependent proteasomal degradation. Together the data establish the first direct molecular link between the endocytic trafficking and cytosolic degradative machineries.     

Small GTPases in vesicle trafficking

Plant small GTPases belonging to the Rop, Arf, and Rab families are regulators of vesicle trafficking. Rop GTPases regulate actin dynamics and modulate H(2)O(2) production in polar cell growth and pathogen defence. A candidate Rop GDP to Rop GTP exchange factor (RopGEF) SPIKE1 is involved in the morphogenesis of leaf epidermal cells. The ArfGEF GNOM regulates the endosomal recycling of the PIN proteins, which are involved in polar auxin transport. Intracellular localisation of small GTPases and functional studies using dominant mutant versions of Arf and Rab GTPases are defining novel plant-specific membrane compartments, especially those that participate in endosomal vesicle trafficking.     

Rab Family Proteins Regulate the Endosomal Trafficking and Function of RGS4

RGS4, a heterotrimeric G-protein inhibitor, localizes to plasma membrane (PM) and endosomal compartments. Here, we examined Rab-mediated control of RGS4 internalization and recycling. Wild type and constitutively active Rab5 decreased RGS4 PM levels while increasing its endosomal targeting. Rab5, however, did not appreciably affect the PM localization or function of the M1 muscarinic receptor (M1R)/G_q signaling cascade. RGS4-containing endosomes co-localized with subsets of Rab5-, transferrin receptor-, and Lamp1/Lysotracker-marked compartments suggesting RGS4 traffics through PM recycling or acidified endosome pathways. Rab7 activity promoted TGN association, whereas Rab7(dominant negative) trapped RGS4 in late endosomes. Furthermore, RGS4 was found to co-localize with an endosomal pool marked by Rab11, the protein that mediates recycling/sorting of proteins to the PM. The Cys-12 residue in RGS4 appeared important for its Rab11-mediated trafficking to the PM. Rab11(dominant negative) decreased RGS4 PM levels and increased the number of RGS4-containing endosomes. Inhibition of Rab11 activity decreased RGS4 function as an inhibitor of M1R activity without affecting localization and function of the M1R/G_q signaling complex. Thus, both Rab5 activation and Rab11 inhibition decreased RGS4 function in a manner that is independent from their effects on the localization and function of the M1R/G_q signaling complex. This is the first study to implicate Rab GTPases in the intracellular trafficking of an RGS protein. Thus, Rab GTPases may be novel molecular targets for the selective regulation of M1R-mediated signaling via their specific effects on RGS4 trafficking and function.     

Rab proteins regulate epithelial sodium channel activity in colonic epithelial HT-29 cells

ENaC, the sodium-selective amiloride-sensitive epithelial channel, mediates electrogenic sodium re-absorption in tight epithelia and is deeply associated with human hypertension. The ENaC expression at plasma membrane requires the regulated transport, processing, and macromolecular assembly in a defined and highly compartmentalized manner. Ras-related Rab GTPases regulate intracellular trafficking during endocytosis, regulated exocytosis, and secretion. To evaluate the role of these proteins in regulating amiloride-sensitive sodium channel activity, multiple Rab isoforms 3, 5, 6, and Rab27a were expressed in HT-29 cells. Rab3 and Rab27a inhibited ENaC currents, while the expression of other Rab isoforms failed to elicit any statistically significant effect on amiloride-sensitive currents. The immunoprecipitation experiments suggest protein-protein interaction of Rab3 and Rab27a with epithelial sodium channel. Biotinylation studies revealed that modulation of ENaC function is due to the reduced apical expression of channel proteins. Study also indicates that Rabs do not appear to affect the steady-state level of total cellular ENaC. Alternatively, introduction of isoform-specific small inhibitory RNA (SiRNA) reversed the Rab-dependent inhibition of amiloride-sensitive currents. These observations point to the involvement of multiple Rab proteins in ENaC transport through intracellular routes like exocytosis, recycling from ER to plasma membrane or degradation and thus serve as potential target for human hypertension.     

Endosomal trafficking of the G protein-coupled receptor somatostatin receptor 3

Intracellular trafficking of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) regulates their surface availability and determines cellular response to agonists. Rab GTPases regulate membrane trafficking and identifying Rab networks controlling GPCR trafficking is essential for understanding GPCR signaling. We used real time imaging to show that somatostatin receptor 3 (SSTR3) traffics through Rab4-, Rab21-, and Rab11-containing endosomes, but largely bypasses Rab5 and Rab7 endosomes. We show that SSTR3 rapidly traffics through Rab4 endosomes but moves slower through Rab21 and Rab11 endosomes. SSTR3 passage through each endosomal compartment is regulated by the cognate Rab since expression of the inactive Rab4/S22N, Rab21/T33N, and Rab11/S25N inhibits SSTR3 trafficking. Thus, Rab4, Rab21, and Rab11 may represent therapeutic targets to modulate surface availability of SSTR3 for agonist binding. Our novel finding that Rab21 regulates SSTR3 trafficking suggests that Rab21 may play a role in trafficking of other GPCRs.