Conjugation of enzymes on polymer nanoparticles covered with phosphorylcholine groups

We investigated the bioconjugation of enzymes on polymer nanoparticles covered with bioinert phosphorylcholine groups. A water-soluble amphiphilic phospholipid polymer (PMBN) was specially designed for preparation of nanoparticles and conjugation with enzymes on them. The PMBN was prepared by random copolymerization of 2-methacryloyloxyethyl phosphorylcholine (MPC), n-butyl methacrylate, and p-nitrophenylester bearing methacrylate. The PMBN was used as an emulsifier and a surface modifier to prepare the poly(l-lactic acid) nanoparticles by a solvent evaporation technique in aqueous medium. The nanoparticles covered with phosphorylcholine groups were stably dispersed in an aqueous solution and a phosphate buffered saline. The diameter and surface zeta-potential of the nanoparticles were ca. 200 nm and -6 mV, respectively. The p-nitrophenyl ester groups, which are active ester units for the amino groups of the protein, were located at the surface of the nanoparticles. Both acetylcholine esterase and choline oxidase were co-immobilized (dual-mode conjugation) by the reaction between the p-nitrophenyl ester group and the amino group of these enzymes. The enzymatic reactions on the nanoparticles were followed using a microdialysis biosensor system with a microtype hydrogen peroxide electrode in the probe. The nanoparticles conjugated with these enzymes could detect the acetylcholine chloride as hydrogen peroxide, which is a product of the enzymatic reactions on the surface of the nanoparticles in the probe. Namely, continuous enzyme reactions could be occurring on the surface of the nanoparticles. It is concluded that the nanoparticles are a promising tool for a highly sensitive and microdiagnostic system.     

A Simple, Sensitive, and Economic Assay for Choline and Acetylcholine Using HPLC, an Enzyme Reactor, and an Electrochemical Detector

A simple, efficient, economic, and sensitive method is presented for the detection of choline and acetylcholine in neuronal tissue using HPLC, a postcolumn enzyme reactor with immobilized enzyme, and electrochemical detection. The method is based on a separation of choline and acetylcholine by cation exchange HPLC followed by passage of the effluent through a postcolumn reactor containing a mixture of acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase; the latter enzyme converts choline to betaine and hydrogen peroxide, the former enzyme hydrolyzes acetylcholine to acetate and choline. The hydrogen peroxide produced is electrochemically detected. A simple and efficient preparation of neuronal tissue is described using an optional prepurification step on Sephadex G-10 columns, offering the possibility to detect choline and acetylcholine as well as catecholamines and their related metabolites in the same tissue sample. The sensitivity of the assay system is 250 fmol for choline and 500 fmol for acetylcholine.     

High-performance liquid chromatography followed by peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence detection of acetylcholine and choline utilizing immobilized enzymes

A sensitive and selective method for the simultaneous determination of acetylcholine (ACh) and choline (Ch) is reported. ACh and Ch were separated on a reversed-phase column, passed through an immobilized enzymes (acetylcholine esterase and choline oxidase) column, and converted to hydrogen peroxide. The generated hydrogen peroxide was detected by the peroxyoxalate chemiluminescence reaction. The linear determination ranges were from 10 pmol to 10 nmol. The detection limit for both cholines was 1 pmol.     

Detection of basal acetylcholine in rat brain microdialysate

A liquid chromatography-electrochemistry (LC-EC) method is described for the determination of basal acetylcholine (ACh) in microdialysate from the striatum of freely moving rats. This method is based on the separation of ACh and choline (Ch) by microbore liquid chromatography followed by passage of the effluent through a post-column immobilized enzyme reactor (IMER), containing acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and choline oxidase (ChO), and then the electrochemical detection of the hydrogen peroxide produced. Instead of the conventional platinum electrode used for the anodic detection of hydrogen peroxide, a peroxidase-redox polymer modified glassy carbon electrode operated at + 100 mV vs. Ag/AgCl has been used to detect the reduction of hydrogen peroxide. With this method, a detection limit of 10 fmol (injected) for ACh (S/N = 3:1) was obtained and the basal ACh concentration in striatal microdialysate was determined without using esterase inhibitors.     

Measurement of acetylcholine and choline in brain by HPLC with electrochemical detection

A simple and rapid method for measuring acetylcholine and choline using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection is presented. Acetylcholine and choline were first separated using reverse-phase chromatography; acetylcholine was then hydrolyzed post-column to choline by acetylcholinesterase. Choline was oxidized enzymatically by choline oxidase to betaine and hydrogen peroxide, and the peroxide was detected electrochemically. Changes in methodology from previous procedures include a different mobile phase, controlled heating of chromatography column and post-column reaction coil, and a different extraction method for quaternary amines. The changes resulted in less inhibition of derivatizing enzymes by mobile phase, narrow and consistent elution of peaks, and a rapid and efficient extraction of quaternary amines. Measurement of acetylcholine and choline in brain tissue was found to be replicable, and the levels agreed with literature values.     

Amperometric biosensor based on enzymes immobilized in hybrid mesoporous membranes for the determination of acetylcholine

Acetylcholine sensor is successfully prepared by using immobilized enzymes, i.e., acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase within separate hybrid mesoporous silica membranes with 12 nm pore diameter (F127M). The measurement was based on the detection of hydrogen peroxide produced by two sequential enzyme reactions. The determination range and the response time are 6.0–800 μM and within approximately 3 min, respectively. The sensor is very stable compared to free enzymes and 80% of the initial response was maintained even after storage for 80 days. These results show that two enzymes are successfully immobilized and well stabilized, and at the same time, two sequential enzyme reactions efficiently proceed within the separate hybrid mesoporous membranes. Further, we studied the possible detection of organophosphorus pesticides in terms of the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity, i.e., the decrease of current response, and demonstrated that the nanomolar concentrations of pesticide (DZN-oxon) can be detected with our sensor.     

Acetylcholine and Choline in Neuronal Tissue Measured by HPLC with Electrochemical Detection

Abstract: A simple, rapid method is presented for the determination of acetylcholine (ACh) and choline (Ch) in neuronal tissue using HPLC with electrochemical detection. The method is based on the separation of ACh and Ch by reverse-phase HPLC and mixing the effluent as it emerges from the column with acetylcholinesterase and Ch oxidase, which converts endogenous Ch and Ch produced by the hydrolysis of ACh to betaine and hydrogen peroxide. Production of hydrogen peroxide is continuously monitored electrochemically. The sensitivity of the procedure is 1 pmol for Ch and 2 pmol for ACh. Specificity of the method is based on HPLC, two specific enzymatic reactions, and the detection of hydrogen peroxide.     

Immobilization of flavoproteins on silicon: effect of cross-linker chain length on enzyme activity.

The effect of cross-linker chain length on the activities of choline oxidase (ChO) and glucose oxidase (GOx) immobilized on oxidized silicon wafers has been investigated for the cross-linkers N-succinimidyl 4-maleimido-butyrate (GMBS) and N-succinimidyl 6-maleimidocaproate (EMCS). Enzyme activities were determined with an indirect fluorometric assay based on the production of hydrogen peroxide. Immobilization of ChO or GOx onto oxidized silicon with either cross-linker resulted in an 86-99% loss in enzymatic activity relative to the soluble form of the flavoprotein. However, the different cross-linkers had distinctly different effects on enzyme activity: EMCS-immobilized GOx was four times more active than GMBS-immobilized GOx; EMCS-immobilized ChO had a sevenfold higher activity than GMBS-immobilized ChO.     

Acetylcholine biosensor involving entrapment of acetylcholinesterase and poly(ethylene glycol)-modified choline oxidase in a poly(vinyl alcohol) cryogel membrane

A bienzymatic sensor for the determination of acetylcholine was prepared by physical coimmobilization of acetylcholinesterase and poly(ethylene glycol)-modified choline oxidase in a poly(vinyl alcohol) cryogel membrane obtained by a cyclic freezing-thawing process. The enzyme-modified polymer was applied on a platinum electrode to form an amperometric sensor, based on the electrochemical detection of enzymatically developed hydrogen peroxide. The analytical characteristics of this sensor, including calibration curves for choline and acetylcholine, pH, and temperature effects, and stability are described.     

Amperometric biosensor based on enzymes immobilized in hybrid mesoporous membranes for the determination of acetylcholine

Acetylcholine sensor is successfully prepared by using immobilized enzymes, i.e., acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase within separate hybrid mesoporous silica membranes with 12 nm pore diameter (F127M). The measurement was based on the detection of hydrogen peroxide produced by two sequential enzyme reactions. The determination range and the response time are 6.0–800 μM and within approximately 3 min, respectively. The sensor is very stable compared to free enzymes and 80% of the initial response was maintained even after storage for 80 days. These results show that two enzymes are successfully immobilized and well stabilized, and at the same time, two sequential enzyme reactions efficiently proceed within the separate hybrid mesoporous membranes. Further, we studied the possible detection of organophosphorus pesticides in terms of the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity, i.e., the decrease of current response, and demonstrated that the nanomolar concentrations of pesticide (DZN-oxon) can be detected with our sensor.     

Development of a biosensor for assaying postmortem nucleotide degradation in fish tissues

An enzyme sensor system has been developed to assess the freshness level in fish tissue. The system was designed to measure the K value, the concentration ratio of [Hx + HxR] and [Hx + HxR + IMP], where Hx, HxR, and IMP are hypoxanthine, inosine and inosine-5'-monophosphate, respectively. The [Hx + HxR] concentration in tissue extract was measured by nucleoside phosphorylase and xanthine oxidase immobilized on a preactivated nylon membrane and attached to the tip of a polarographic electrode. The electrode amperometrically detected the products of degradation, hydrogen peroxide and uric acid. For determination of [IMP + HxR + Hx], IMP was first converted to HxR by nucleotidase immobilized on the wall of a polystyrene tube. The enzyme electrode consisting of nucleoside phosphorylase and xanthine oxidase provided excellent reproducible results for at least 40 repeated assays and immobilized nucleotidase was good for at least 40 assays as well. The K value for each sample could be determined in ca. 10 min. When applied to K value measurements in several fish meats, the results obtained agreed well with those obtained by the conventional enzymatic method.     

Enzymatic production of hydrogen peroxide and acetaldehyde in a pressure reactor

Alcohol oxidase, an enzyme which exhibits relatively weak substrate specificity among short chain alcohols, forms the corresponding aldehyde and hydrogen peroxide as coproduct. The ability of alcohol oxidase from Pichia pastoris yeast to convert ethanol to acetaldehyde and hydrogen peroxide was examined in an oxygen pressure reactor under conditions, such that oxygen availability was sufficient to permit rapid catalysis. Hydrogen peroxide levels of approximately 1.8/M (6% w/w) were attained in 2-3 h with 2.8 muM enzyme, corresponding to a productivity of approximately 30 g peroxide/g enzyme. Optimal conditions (within equipment limitations) were 900 psi oxygen, 2.6M ethanol, at 4 degrees C. Similar levels of products were reached in the reactor using enzyme immobilized covalently on controlled pore glass and noncovalently on an anion exchange support. Recycle of covalently immobilized enzyme was not possible as a result of enzyme inactivation after a single run. Limited recycle of noncovalently immobilized enzyme was accomplished with substantial decreases in levels of product attainable on each cycle.     

A chemiluminescence automatic analyser for the measurement of biological compounds

A compact automated analyser which could analyse constituents in biological fluids with a small sample volume and in a short time has been developed. The instrument was composed of a flow injection analysis system equipped with chemiluminometric detection and an immobilized enzyme column reactor used in combination. Chemiluminescence has high sensitivity, and its reaction proceeds very quickly. Furthermore, an immobilized enzyme column reactor can produce a sufficient amount of hydrogen peroxide from compounds in serum in a short time. When enzymes are used as reagents for the analysis of substances in blood or blood serum, the final signals emitted by different enzyme reactions are usually not only hydrogen peroxide but also ammonia, NAD(P)H and so on. However, the practical chemiluminescence method for ammonia and NAD(P)H has not been established. We have discovered a new practical method for ammonia and NAD(P)H using an enzyme column reactor consisting of both immobilized L -glutamate dehydrogenase and L -glutamate oxidase. The determinations of glucose and uric acid in serum by chemiluminometry after production of hydrogen peroxide by the respective oxidases are presented. A newly chemiluminometric determination of ammonia, NAD(P)H and its applications to other enzymatic analyses that give ammonia and NAD(P)H as a final signal are also described.     

Hydrogen peroxide generation with immobilized glucose oxidase for textile bleaching.

Glucose oxidase was covalently immobilized on commercially available alumina and glass supports, with a high level of protein recovery. The operational stability of the alumina carrier was an advantage over the glass support, though the rate of generation of hydrogen peroxide in the case of the latter was higher. The immobilization technique provided repeated application of the enzyme even in low concentration, and the hydrogen peroxide generated in the enzymatic reaction was successively used for textile bleaching.     

Galactose oxidase action on galactose containing glycolipids--a fluorescence method

Features that alter the glycolipid sugar headgroup accessibility at the membrane interface have been studied in bilayer lipid model vesicles using a fluorescence technique with the enzyme galactose oxidase. The effects on oxidation caused by variation in the hydrophobic moiety of galactosylceramide or the membrane environment for galactosylceramide, monogalactosyldiacylglycerol and digalactosyldiacylglycerol were studied. For this study we combined the galactose oxidase method for determining the oxidizability of galactose containing glycolipids, and the fluorescence method for determining enzymatic hydrogen peroxide production. Exposed galactose residues with a free hydroxymethyl group at position 6 in the headgroup of glycolipids were oxidized with galactose oxidase and subsequently the resultant hydrogen peroxide was determined by a combination of horseradish peroxidase and 10-acetyl-3,7-dihydroxyphenoxazine (Amplex Red). Amplex Red reacts with hydrogen peroxide in the presence of horseradish peroxidase with a 1:1 stoichiometry to form resorufin. With this coupled enzyme approach it is also possible to determine the galactolipid transbilayer membrane distribution (inside-outside) in bilayer vesicles.     

Determination of phosphatidylcholine in a flow injection system using immobilized enzyme reactors

Two alternative procedures are described for the quantitative determination of phosphatidylcholine in a flow-injection system utilizing immobilized enzymes. Phospholipase C from Bacillus cereus and phospholipase D from cabbage were covalently bound to the surface of controlled-pore glass beads and the enzyme-derivatized beads were packed in small columns. In the first procedure, the phospholipase C column was connected with a second column containing coimmobilized alkaline phosphatase and choline oxidase. In the alternative procedure, the column packed with immobilized phospholipase D was connected with a column packed with immobilized choline oxidase. The hydrogen peroxide produced through the action of choline oxidase in both flow-injection systems was detected amperometrically. Both procedures are suitable for an accurate and rapid quantitation of phosphatidylcholine. The sensitivity of the method based on phospholipase C and alkaline phosphatase is higher than that using phospholipase D. Quantitation of phosphatidylcholine at the nanomole level can be easily obtained using the first method.     

Quantitation of glycerophosphorylcholine by flow injection analysis using immobilized enzymes

A method for quantitating glycerophosphorylcholine by flow injection analysis is reported in the present paper. Glycerophosphorylcholine phosphodiesterase and choline oxidase, immobilized on controlled porosity glass beads, are packed in a small reactor inserted in a flow injection manifold. When samples containing glycerophosphorylcholine are injected, glycerophosphorylcholine is hydrolyzed into choline and sn-glycerol-3-phosphate. The free choline produced in this reaction is oxidized to betain and hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is detected amperometrically.Quantitation of glycerophosphorylcholine in samples containing choline and phosphorylcholine is obtained inserting ahead of the reactor a small column packed with a mixed bed ion exchange resin. The time needed for each determination does not exceed one minute.The present method, applied to quantitate glycerophosphorylcholine in samples of seminal plasma, gave results comparable with those obtained using the standard enzymatic- spectrophotometric procedure.An alternative procedure, making use of co-immobilized glycerophosphorylcholine phosphodiesterase and glycerol-3-phosphate oxidase for quantitating glycerophosphorylcholine, glycerophosphorylethanolamine and glycerophosphorylserine is also described.Abbreviations GPC sn-glycerol-3-phosphorylcholine - GPE sn-glycerol-3-phosphorylethanolamine - GPS sn-glycerol-3-phosphorylserine - GPA sn-glycerol-3-phosphoric acid - PDE glycerophosphorylcholine-phosphodiesterase - GPA-Ox glycerophosphate oxidase - Cho-Ox choline oxidase     

Disposable, enzymatically modified printed film carbon electrodes for use in the high-performance liquid chromatographic–electrochemical detection of glucose or hydrogen peroxide from immobilized enzyme reactors

Disposable screen-printed, film carbon electrodes (PFCE) were modified with cast-coated Osmium–polyvinylpyrridine-wired horse radish peroxidase gel polymer (Os-gel-HRP) to enable the detection of the reduction at 0 mV of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) derived from a post-column immobilized enzyme reactor (IMER) containing acetylcholinesterase and choline oxidase. In another series of experiments PFCE were initially modified with cast-coated Os-gel-HRP and then treated with glucose oxidase in bovine serum albumin (BSA) and cross-linked with glutaraldehyde to form a bi-layer glucose–Os-gel-HRP PFCE. This bi-layer glucose–Os-gel-HRP PFCE generated a reduction current at 0 mV to H₂O₂ derived from the reaction of glucose oxidase and glucose in solution. These enzyme-modified PFCE were housed in a radial flow cell and coupled with cation-exchange liquid chromatographic methods to temporally separate substrates in solution for the determination of acetylcholine (ACh) and choline (Ch) in the first experimental series, or glucose in the second experimental series. These two disposable enzyme-modified PFCE exhibited linear current vs. substrate relations, were durable, being usable for approximately 40 determinations, and were sufficiently sensitive to be employed in biological sampling. Both assays utilized the same HPLC equipment. The limit of detection for ACh was 16 fmol/10 μl and that for glucose was 12 μmol/7.5 μl. ACh and Ch were measured from a microdialysate from the frontal cortex of a rat. Glucose in human urine was determined using the bi-layer glucose oxidase–Os-gel-HRP PFCE.     

Determination of acetylcholine by on-line microdialysis coupled with pre- and post-microbore column enzyme reactors with electrochemical detection

A sensitive procedure consisting of a pre- and post-microbore column reactor sequence of a LC-electrochemical detection system coupled with on-line microdialysis system is described in the present study to measure endogenous acetylcholine concentration in freely moving rats. The pre-column packed, with immobilized choline oxidase and catalase, was used to remove choline, whereas the post-column, packed with immobilized acetylcholine oxidase and choline oxidase, was used to measure acetylcholine selectively. The detection limit of acetylcholine was found to be 5 fmol/μl (50 fmol/10 μl). The usefulness of the described methodology was evaluated by examining the change in the striatal acetylcholine concentration of freely moving rats after physostigmine (0.5 mg/kg, s.c.) administration.     

Urate as a physiological substrate for myeloperoxidase: implications for hyperuricemia and inflammation

Urate and myeloperoxidase (MPO) are associated with adverse outcomes in cardiovascular disease. In this study, we assessed whether urate is a likely physiological substrate for MPO and if the products of their interaction have the potential to exacerbate inflammation. Urate was readily oxidized by MPO and hydrogen peroxide to 5-hydroxyisourate, which decayed to predominantly allantoin. The redox intermediates of MPO were reduced by urate with rate constants of 4.6 × 10(5) M(-1) s(-1) for compound I and 1.7 × 10(4) M(-1) s(-1) for compound II. Urate competed with chloride for oxidation by MPO and at hyperuricemic levels is expected to be a substantive substrate for the enzyme. Oxidation of urate promoted super-stoichiometric consumption of glutathione, which indicates that it is converted to a free radical intermediate. In combination with superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, MPO oxidized urate to a reactive hydroperoxide. This would form by addition of superoxide to the urate radical. Urate also enhanced MPO-dependent consumption of nitric oxide. In human plasma, stimulated neutrophils produced allantoin in a reaction dependent on the NADPH oxidase, MPO and superoxide. We propose that urate is a physiological substrate for MPO that is oxidized to the urate radical. The reactions of this radical with superoxide and nitric oxide provide a plausible link between urate and MPO in cardiovascular disease.