Complete nucleotide sequence of the prophage VT2-Sakai carrying the verotoxin 2 genes of the enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 derived from the Sakai outbreak

The enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 strain RIMD 0509952, derived from an outbreak in Sakai city, Japan, in 1996, produces two kinds of verotoxins, VT1 and VT2, encoded by the stx1 and stx2 genes. In the EHEC strains, as well as in other VT-producing E. coli strains, the toxins are encoded by lysogenic bacteriophages. The EHEC O157:H7 strain RIMD 0509952 did not produce plaque-forming phage particles upon inducing treatments. We have determined the complete nucleotide sequence of a prophage, VT2-Sakai, carrying the stx2A and stx2B genes on the chromosome, and presumed the putative functions of the encoded proteins and the cis-acting DNA elements based on sequence homology data. To our surprise, the sequences in the regions of VT2-Sakai corresponding to the early gene regulators and replication proteins, and the DNA sequences recognized by the regulators share very limited homology to those of the VT2-encoding 933W phage carried by the EHEC O157:H7 strain EDL933 reported by Plunkett et al. (J. Bacteriol., p1767-1778, 181, 1999), although the sequences corresponding to the structural components are almost identical. These data suggest that these two phages were derived from a common ancestral phage and that either or both of them underwent multiple genetic rearrangements. An IS629 insertion was found downstream of the stx2B gene and upstream of the lysis gene S, and this might be responsible for the absence of plaque-forming activity in the lysate obtained after inducing treatments.     

Distinctiveness of the genomic sequence of Shiga toxin 2-converting phage isolated from Escherichia coli O157:H7 Okayama strain as compared to other Shiga toxin 2-converting phages

Shiga toxin 2-converting phage was isolated from Escherichia coli O157:H7 associated with an outbreak that occurred in Okayama, Japan in 1996 (M. Watarai, T. Sato, M. Kobayashi, T. Shimizu, S. Yamasaki, T. Tobe, C. Sasakawa and Y. Takeda, Infect. Immun. 61 (1998) 3210-3204). In this study, we analyzed the complete nucleotide sequence of Shiga toxin 2-converting phage, designated Stx2phi-I, and compared it with three recently reported Stx2-phage genomes. Stx2phi-I consisted of 61,765 bp, which included 166 open reading frames. When compared to 933W, VT2-Sakai and VT2-Sa phages, six characteristic regions (regions I-VI) were found in the Stx2 phage genomes although overall homology was more than 95% between these phages. Stx2phi-I exhibited remarkable differences in these regions as compared with VT-2 Sakai and VT2-Sa genes but not with 933W phage. Characteristic repeat sequences were found in regions I-IV where the genes responsible for the construction of head and tail are located. Regions V and VI, which are the most distinct portion in the entire phage genome were located in the upstream and downstream regions of the Stx2 operons that are responsible for the immunity and replication, and host lysis. These data indicated that Stx2phi-I is less homologous to VT2-Sakai and VT2-Sa phages, despite these three phages being found in the strains isolated at the almost same time in the same geographic region but closely related to 933W phage which was found in the E. coli O157 strain 933W isolated 14 years ago in a different geographic area.     

Genome analysis of a novel Shiga toxin 1 (Stx1)-converting phage which is closely related to Stx2-converting phages but not to other Stx1-converting phages

Two Stx-converting phages, designated Stx1 phi and Stx2 phi-II, were isolated from an Escherichia coli O157:H7 strain, Morioka V526, and their entire nucleotide sequences were determined. The genomes of both phages were similar except for the stx gene-flanking regions. Comparing these phages to other known Stx-converting phages, we concluded that Stx1 phi is a novel Stx1-converting phage closely related to Stx2-converting phages so far reported.     

Isolation of specialized lambda transducing bacteriophages for flagellar genes (fla) of Escherichia coli K-12.

Specialized transducing lambda phages carrying the region III flagellar genes (fla) of Escherichia coli K-12 were isolated by a new method. A strain carrying both a cryptic lambda prophage near the his genes and a deletion of the attlambda gene was used as a starting strain. The lysogen of lambdacI857pga18-bio69 was isolated in which the prophage was integrated within the lambda cryptic genes by means of recombination with the residual lambda DNA. The strains with deletions starting within the prophage and ending in these fla genes were selected from among the heat-resistant survivors of the lysogen. They were then infected with heat-inducible and lysis-defective lambda phages and, thus, specialized transducing phage lines for hag and fla were obtained. High-frequency transfer lines of rare phages carrying the fla genes were isolated by inducing a strain carrying a heat-inducible lambda prophage near the his genes and selecting by transduction of a fla deletion strain. Preliminary characterization of these transducing phages is also reported.     

The Shiga-toxin VT2-encoding bacteriophage varphi297 integrates at a distinct position in the Escherichia coli genome

The plaque-forming VT2-encoding lambdoid bacteriophage varphi297 was isolated from a Belgian clinical Escherichia coli O157:H7 isolate. PCR walking, starting from the int gene of phage varphi297, demonstrated that the varphi297 prophage integrated in the yecE gene of a lysogenic E. coli K12 strain. This integration site, in E. coli K12 and in the original clinical O157:H7 isolate, was confirmed by PCR using primers flanking this site. The excisionase protein of phage varphi297 is identical to the excisionase of VT1-encoding phage VT1-Sakai, while the integrases, which are 82% identical, show significant sequence divergence in the central and C-terminal region. This can explain the different integration sites of both prophages. The activity of the integrase was proven by its ability to mediate the integration of a suicide plasmid, carrying the attachment site of varphi297, at the appropriate position in the E. coli chromosome.     

High stability of Stx2 phage in food and under food-processing conditions

Bacteriophages (phages) carrying Shiga toxin genes constitute a major virulence attribute in enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). Several EHEC outbreaks have been linked to food. The survival of such strains in different foods has received much attention, while the fate of the mobile Shiga toxin-converting phages (Stx phages) has been less studied. We have investigated the stability of an Stx phage in several food products and examined how storage, food processing, and disinfection influence the infectivity of phage particles. The study involved a recombinant Stx phage (Δstx::cat) of an E. coli O103:H25 strain from a Norwegian outbreak in 2006. Temperature, matrix, and time were factors of major importance for the stability of phage particles. Phages stored at cooling temperatures (4°C) showed a dramatic reduction in stability compared to those stored at room temperature. The importance of the matrix was evident at higher temperatures (60°C). Phages in ground beef were below the detection level when heated to 60°C for more than 10 min, while phages in broth exposed to the same heating conditions showed a 5-log-higher stability. The phages tolerated desiccation poorly but were infective for a substantial period of time in solutions. Under moist conditions, they also had a high ability to tolerate exposure to several disinfectants. In a dry-fermented sausage model, phages were shown to infect E. coli in situ. The results show that Stx phage particles can maintain their infectivity in foods and under food-processing conditions.     

出血性大肠杆菌O157基因缺失疫苗株的构建及其免疫

出血性大肠杆菌O157感染是重要的新发食物源性传染病,主要致病特征之一是能引起人肠上皮细胞特征性的A/E损伤,A/E损伤主要是由LEE致病岛所编码的毒力因子所引起,ler是LEE致病岛毒力基因群的中心调节基因,对LEE致病岛所编码的毒力因子有正调控作用。O157:H7另一个毒力因子是由整合到染色体上的原噬菌体编码的Stx毒素。以O157:H786-24为始发菌株,利用自杀性质粒pCVD442和同源重组的原理构建了O157:H7的ler基因缺失突变菌株(缺失了ler基因中第73-351位的碱基,共279bp),并利用噬菌体消除技术筛选到消除了编码Stx的原噬菌体DNA的菌株,构建出了O157:H7ler/stx基因缺失突变弱毒菌株,并对该菌株的Vero细胞毒性、小鼠模型的安全性以及乳鼠的被动免疫保护作用进行了研究。结果表明,O157:H7ler/stx基因缺失突变菌株丧失了对Vero细胞的毒性作用,并丧失了对实验小鼠的致病性,具有良好的安全性。乳鼠被动免疫保护性实验表明,用该菌株免疫母鼠后,乳鼠通过吸吮母乳可以获得良好的被动免疫保护作用。因此本研究所构建的O157:H7ler/stx基因缺失突变弱毒菌株可作为预防EHEC O157:H7感染的疫苗候选株,为最终研究制出O157的基因工程菌苗奠定基础。     

Induction of prophages of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 with norfloxacin

Norfloxacin (NFLX) caused induction of prophages VT1 and VT2 of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157 at subinhibitory concentrations. In time course experiments, we observed the following sequential events: upon induction, the phage genomes underwent multiplication; the amount of stx genes increased; and subsequently, large quantities of toxins VT1 and VT2 were produced. Further studies showed that the molecular mechanism of prophage induction is closely related to the RecA system since the prophage VT2 was not induced with NFLX in a recA mutant strain.     

8株动物源编码Stx2短尾噬菌体的生物学特性

[目的]对8株源自大肠杆菌O157编码Stx2毒素的噬菌体生物学特性进行研究.[方法]丝裂霉素C诱导8株大肠杆菌O157菌株释放噬菌体,采用PCR作初步鉴定,分离、纯化噬菌体基因组,随机引物法地高辛(DIG)标记stx2基因片段作为探针,对纯化的噬菌体采用Southernblot进行Stx2噬菌体再次鉴定,透射电子显微镜观察纯化的8株Stx2噬菌体的形态特征,通过限制性内切酶图谱分析,确定噬菌体的核酸类型和基因组大小、以及限制性内切酶酶切片段多态性,并分析噬菌体的蛋白质组成特征.[结果]Southern blot证实分离的8株噬菌体为Stx2噬菌体,电镜下观察的各株Stx2噬菌体形态一致,头部均为正六边形,尾部很短,属于短尾噬菌体科,各株噬菌体之间存在相同的蛋白结构模式,基因组为双链DNA,限制性内切酶片段长度表现出一定的多态性,噬菌体的基因组大小从48.0-65.3 kb不等.[结论]来源不同菌株的8株编码Stx2噬菌体均为短尾噬菌体,其蛋白结构模式一致,但基因组具有不同组成.     

The highly virulent 2006 Norwegian EHEC O103:H25 outbreak strain is related to the 2011 German O104:H4 outbreak strain

In 2006, a severe foodborne EHEC outbreak occured in Norway. Seventeen cases were recorded and the HUS frequency was 60%. The causative strain, Esherichia coli O103:H25, is considered to be particularly virulent. Sequencing of the outbreak strain revealed resemblance to the 2011 German outbreak strain E. coli O104:H4, both in genome and Shiga toxin 2-encoding (Stx2) phage sequence. The nucleotide identity between the Stx2 phages from the Norwegian and German outbreak strains was 90%. During the 2006 outbreak, stx(2)-positive O103:H25 E. coli was isolated from two patients. All the other outbreak associated isolates, including all food isolates, were stx-negative, and carried a different phage replacing the Stx2 phage. This phage was of similar size to the Stx2 phage, but had a distinctive early phage region and no stx gene. The sequence of the early region of this phage was not retrieved from the bacterial host genome, and the origin of the phage is unknown. The contaminated food most likely contained a mixture of E. coli O103:H25 cells with either one of the phages.     

Chromosomal dynamism in progeny of outbreak-related sorbitol-fermenting enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:NM

Sorbitol-fermenting (SF) enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:NM (nonmotile) is a unique clone that causes outbreaks of hemorrhagic colitis and hemolytic-uremic syndrome. In well-defined clusters of cases, we have observed significant variability in pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) patterns which could indicate coinfection by different strains. An analysis of randomly selected progeny colonies of an outbreak strain after subcultivation demonstrated that they displayed either the cognate PFGE outbreak pattern or one of four additional patterns and were <89% similar. These profound alterations were associated with changes in the genomic position of one of two Shiga toxin 2-encoding genes (stx2) in the outbreak strain or with the loss of this gene. The two stx2 alleles in the outbreak strain were identical but were flanked with phage-related sequences with only 77% sequence identity. Neither of these phages produced plaques, but one lysogenized E. coli K-12 and integrated in yecE in the lysogens and the wild-type strain. The presence of two stx2 genes which correlated with increased production of Stx2 in vitro but not with the clinical outcome of infection was also found in 14 (21%) of 67 SF EHEC O157:NM isolates from sporadic cases of human disease. The variability of PFGE patterns for the progeny of a single colony must be considered when interpreting PFGE patterns in SF EHEC O157-associated outbreaks.     

A sensitive and simple plaque formation method for the Stx2 phage of Escherichia coli O157:H7, which does not form plaques in the standard plating procedure

Bacteriophages are fascinating genetic elements that play key roles in the evolution and diversification of bacterial genomes. Shiga toxin (Stx)-transducing phages are important genetic elements that disseminate the stx genes among enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC). They are generally regarded as lambda-like phages, but their biological and genetic properties have not been fully elucidated. This is partly due to a serious obstacle in obtaining visible plaques. Here, we describe a modified double agar overlay method that allows us to easily detect and accurately enumerate plaques of Sp5, the Stx2 phage of the EHEC O157 Sakai strain, which otherwise does not produce plaques in the standard plating procedure. In the modified method, the top agar was supplemented with mitomycin C (MMC) and Ca(2+) (or Mg(2+)). MMC appears to prevent the lysogenization of Sp5 and/or compel Sp5 to follow the lytic cycle by inducing the SOS response in the host cells. The divalent cations significantly improve phage adsorption to the host cells and thus yield a synergistic effect in combination with MMC. We further applied this method to a receptor analysis of Sp5 and obtained findings that suggest that the YaeT (BamA) protein serves as the receptor of Sp5. This method would be a very useful tool in studies of Stx2 phages and studies of other phages from various bacteria, in which researchers often encounter problems with plaque formation.     

Characterizing RecA-independent induction of Shiga toxin2-encoding phages by EDTA treatment

Background

The bacteriophage life cycle has an important role in Shiga toxin (Stx) expression. The induction of Shiga toxin-encoding phages (Stx phages) increases toxin production as a result of replication of the phage genome, and phage lysis of the host cell also provides a means of Stx toxin to exit the cell. Previous studies suggested that prophage induction might also occur in the absence of SOS response, independently of RecA.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The influence of EDTA on RecA-independent Stx2 phage induction was assessed, in laboratory lysogens and in EHEC strains carrying Stx2 phages in their genome, by Real-Time PCR. RecA-independent mechanisms described for phage λ induction (RcsA and DsrA) were not involved in Stx2 phage induction. In addition, mutations in the pathway for the stress response of the bacterial envelope to EDTA did not contribute to Stx2 phage induction. The effect of EDTA on Stx phage induction is due to its chelating properties, which was also confirmed by the use of citrate, another chelating agent. Our results indicate that EDTA affects Stx2 phage induction by disruption of the bacterial outer membrane due to chelation of Mg²⁺. In all the conditions evaluated, the pH value had a decisive role in Stx2 phage induction.

Conclusions/Significance

Chelating agents, such as EDTA and citrate, induce Stx phages, which raises concerns due to their frequent use in food and pharmaceutical products. This study contributes to our understanding of the phenomenon of induction and release of Stx phages as an important factor in the pathogenicity of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) and in the emergence of new pathogenic strains.     

Detection of phages carrying the Shiga toxin 1 and 2 genes in waste water and river water samples

AIMS: To evaluate the occurrence and abundance of phages that carry the stx(1) and stx(2) gene in water samples of different quality. METHODS AND RESULTS: Phages growing on the Shiga toxin-negative Escherichia coli O157:H7 (ATCC 43,888) strain were enumerated by a plaque assay in concentrated raw and treated waste water samples and river water samples. Plaques were investigated for the presence of stx(1) and stx(2) genes by a multiplex/nested PCR procedure. An overall number of 805 plaques were tested for the presence of stx-carrying phages. Stx genes could be demonstrated in 2% (stx(1)) and 16% (stx(2)) of the plaques. Stx-phages were eliminated with approximately the same efficiency in comparison with somatic coliphages during the waste water treatment process. CONCLUSIONS: Due to the low numbers of phages carrying the stx genes 1 and 2 in treated waste water and river water, the dilution and inactivation of host bacteria and the unsuitable conditions for the transduction of host organisms in aquatic environments, it is difficult to derive from the data the direct evidence for a public health problem. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The results show the quantitative occurrence of stx-carrying phages in waste and river water and confirm the frequent circulation of these viruses in the aquatic environment.