Mass-spectrometric evidence for the double-carboxylation pathway of malate synthesis by Crassulacean acid metabolism plants in light

Phyllodia of the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Kalanchoë tubiflora were allowed to fix ¹³CO₂ in light and darkness during phase IV of the diurnal CAM cycle, and during prolongation of the regular light period. After ¹³CO₂ fixation in darkness, only singly labelled [¹³C]malate molecules were found. Fixation of ¹³CO₂ under illumination, however, produced singly labelled malate as well as malate molecules which carried label in two, three or four carbon atoms. When the irradiance during ¹³CO₂ fixation was increased, the proportion of singly labelled malate decreased in favour of plurally labelled malate. The irradiance, however, did not change either the ratio of labelled to unlabelled malate molecules found in the tissue after the ¹³CO₂ application, or the magnitude of malate accumulation during the treatment with label. The ability of the tissue to store malate and the labelling pattern changed throughout the duration of the prolonged light period. The results indicate that malate synthesis by CAM plants in light can proceed via a pathway containing two carboxylation steps, namely ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase/oxygenase (EC 4.1.1.39) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) which operate in series and share common intermediates. It can be concluded that, in light, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase can also synthesize malate independently of the proceeding carboxylation step by ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PEPCase phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) - RuBPCase ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (EC 4.1.1.39) - TMS trimethylsilyl     

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in leaves of Aloe arborescens mill

In the succulent leaves of Aloe arborescens Mill diurnal oscillations of the malic acid content, being indicative of Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM), were exhibited only by the green mesophyll. In contrast, the malic acid level of the central chloroplast-free water-storing tissue remained constant throughout the day-night cycle. Apart from malate, the green tissue contained high amounts of isocitrat which was lacking in the water tissue. There was no significant transfer from the green mesophyll to the water tissue of ¹⁴C fixed originally via dark ¹⁴CO₂ fixation in the mesophyll. Both isolated mesophyll and water tissue were capable of dark CO₂ fixation yielding mainly malate as the first stable product. Both tissues have phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. However, the enzymes derived from the both sources could be distinguished by their molecular weights and by their kinetic properties, suggesting different phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase proteins. The conclusion drawn from the experiments is that in a. arborescens the CAM cycle proceeds exclusively in the green mesophyll and that the water tissue, though capable of malate synthesis via -carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate, behaves as an independent metabolic system where CAM is lacking. This view is supported by the finding that the cell walls bordering the green mesophyll from the water tissue lack plasmodesmata, hence conveniant pathways of metabolite transport.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PEP-C phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase     

Photoperiodism and Crassulacean acid metabolism

Measurements of net CO₂ exchange, malate accumulation, properties and capacity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPC, EC 4.1.1.31) in leaves of different ages of two short-day dependent Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants (Kalanchoe blossfeldiana v. Poelln. Tom thumb and K. velutina Welw.) show that, in both species: a) young leaves from plants grown under long days display a CO₂ exchange pattern typical of C₃ plants; b) leaf aging promotes CAM under long-day conditions; c) short-day treatment induces CAM in young leaves to a higher degree than aging under long days; d) at least in K. blossfeldiana, the PEPC form developed with leaf aging under long days and the enzyme form synthetized de novo in young leaves grown under short days were shown to have similar properties. Short days also promote CAM in older leaves though at a lesser extent than in young leaves: The result is that this photoperiodic treatment increases the general level of CAM performance by the whole plant. The physiological meaning of the control of PEPC capacity by photoperiodism could be to afford a precisely timed seasonal increase in CAM potentiality, enabling the plant to immediately optimize its response to the onset of drought periods.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PEPC phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) - LD long day - SD short day     

Activity of enzymes of carbon metabolism during the induction of Crassulacean acid metabolism in Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.

The maximum extractable activities of twenty-one photosynthetic and glycolytic enzymes were measured in mature leaves of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum plants, grown under a 12 h light 12 h dark photoperiod, exhibiting photosynthetic characteristics of either a C₃ or a Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant. Following the change from C₃ photosynthesis to CAM in response to an increase in the salinity of in the rooting medium from 100 mM to 400 mM NaCl, the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) increased about 45-fold and the activities of NADP malic enzyme (EC 1.1.1.40) and NAD malic enzyme (EC 1.1.1.38) increased about 4- to 10-fold. Pyruvate, Pi dikinase (EC 2.7.9.1) was not detected in the non-CAM tissue but was present in the CAM tissue; PEP carboxykinase (EC 4.1.1.32) was detected in neither tissue. The induction of CAM was also accompanied by large increases in the activities of the glycolytic enzymes enolase (EC 4.2.1.11), phosphoglyceromutase (EC 2.7.5.3), phosphoglycerate kinase (EC 2.7.2.3), NAD glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.12), and glucosephosphate isomerase (EC 2.6.1.2). There were 1.5- to 2-fold increases in the activities of NAD malate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.37), alanine and aspartate aminotransferases (EC 2.6.1.2 and 2.6.1.1 respectively) and NADP glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.2.1.13). The activities of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.39), fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase (EC 3.1.3.11), phosphofructokinase (EC 2.7.1.11), hexokinase (EC 2.7.1.2) and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.49) remained relatively constant. NADP malate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.82) activity exhibited two pH optima in the non-CAM tissue, one at pH 6.0 and a second at pH 8.0. The activity at pH 8.0 increased as CAM was induced. With the exceptions of hexokinase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, the activities of all enzymes examined in extracts from M. crystallinum exhibiting CAM were equal to, or greater than, those required to sustain the maximum rates of carbon flow during acidification and deacidification observed in vivo. There was no day-night variation in the maximum extractable activities of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, NADP malic enzyme, NAD malic enzyme, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase and NADP malate dehydrogenase in leaves of M. crystallinum undergoing CAM.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - RuBP ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate     

Daily rhythm of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in Crassulacean acid metabolism plants

Immunotitration of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) extracted from leaves of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana v. Poelln. cv. Tom Thumb. It was established that at different times of the day-night cycle the daily rhythm of enzyme capacity does not result from a rhythm in protein synthesis, but rather from changes in the specific activity of the enzyme.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - IgG immunoglobulin G - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate To whom correspondence should be addressed     

Temperature effects on malic-acid efflux from the vacuoles and on the carboxylation pathways in crassulacean-acid-metabolism plants

The studies described in the paper were conducted with tissue slices of Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants floating in isotonic buffer. In a first series of experiments, temperature effects on the efflux of [¹⁴C]malate and¹⁴CO₂ were studied. An increase of temperature increased the efflux from the tissue in a non-linear manner. The efflux was markedly influenced also by the temperatures applied during the pretreatment. The rates of label export in response to the temperature and the relative contributions of¹⁴CO₂ and [¹⁴C]malate to the label export were different in the two studied CAM plants (Kalanchoë daigremontiana, Sempervivum montanum). In further experiments, temperature response of the labelling patterns produced by¹⁴CO₂ fixation and light and darkness were studied. In tissue which had accumulated malate (acidified state) an increase of temperature decreased the rates of dark CO₂ fixation whilst the rates of CO₂ fixation in light remained largely unaffected. An increase of temperature shifted the labelling patterns from a C₄-type (malate being the mainly labelled compound) into a C₃-type (label in carbohydrates). No such shift in the labelling patterns could be observed in the tissue which had depleted the previously stored malate (deacidified state). The results indicate that in the acidified tissue the increase of temperature increases the efflux of malate from the vacuole by changing the properties of the tonoplast. It is assumed that the increased export of malic acid lowers the in-vivo activity of phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase by feedback inhibition.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - FW fresh weight - PEPCase phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase Dedicated to Professor O.L. Lange, Würzburg, on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Regulation of malic-acid metabolism in Crassulacean-acid-metabolism plants in the dark and light: In-vivo evidence from 13C-labeling patterns after 13CO2 fixation

The labeling patterns in malic acid from dark ¹³CO₂ fixation in seven species of succulent plants with Crassulacean acid metabolism were analysed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and ¹³C-nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry. Only singly labeled malic-acid molecules were detected and on the average, after 12–14 h dark ¹³CO₂ fixation the ratio of [4-¹³C] to [1-¹³C] label was 2:1. However the 4-C carboxyl contained from 72 to 50% of the label depending on species and temperature. The ¹³C enrichment of malate and fumarate was similar. These data confirm those of W. Cockburn and A. McAuley (1975, Plant Physiol. 55, 87–89) and indicate fumarase randomization is responsible for movement of label to 1-C malic acid following carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate. The extent of randomization may depend on time and on the balance of malic-acid fluxes between mitochondria and vacuoles. The ratio of labeling in 4-C to 1-C of malic acid which accumulated following ¹³CO₂ fixation in the dark did not change during deacidification in the light and no doubly-labeled molecules of malic acid were detected. These results indicate that further fumarase randomization does not occur in the light, and futile cycling of decarboxylation products of [¹³C] malic acid (¹³CO₂ or [1-¹³C]pyruvate) through phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase does not occur, presumably because malic acid inhibits this enzyme in the light in vivo. Short-term exposure to ¹³CO₂ in the light after deacidification leads to the synthesis of singly and multiply labeled malic acid in these species, as observed by E.W. Ritz et al. (1986, Planta 167, 284–291). In the shortest times, only singly-labeled [4-¹³C]malate was detected but this may be a consequence of the higher intensity and better detection statistics of this ion cluster during mass spectrometry. We conclude that both phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.32) and ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.39) are active at this time.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - GCMS gas chromatography-mass spectrometry - MS mass spectrometry - NMR nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - RuBP ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate     

Properties of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in rapidly prepared,desalted leaf extracts of the Crassulacean acid metabolism plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.

Properties of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase, obtained from leaves of Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. performing Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM), were determined at frequent time points during a 12-h light/12-h dark cycle. Leaf extracts were rapidly desalted and PEP carboxylase activity as a function of PEP concentration, malate concentration, and pH was measured within 2 min after homogenization of the tissue. Maximum velocity of PEP carboxylase was similar in the light and dark at pH 7.5 and pH 8.0. However, PEP carboxylase had as much as a 12-fold lower K _m for PEP and as much as a 20-fold higher K _i for malate during the dark than during the light periods, the magnitude of these differences being dependent on the assay pH. Assuming that enzyme properties immediately after isolation reflect the approximate state of the enzyme in vivo, these differences in enzyme properties reduce the potential for CO₂ fixation via PEP carboxylase in the light. A small decrease in cytoplasmic pH in the light would greatly magnify the above differences in day/night properties of PEP carboxylase, because the sensitivity of PEP carboxylase to inhibition by malate increased with decreasing pH. Properties of PEP carboxylase were also studied in plants exposed to short-term perturbations of the normal 12-h light/12-h dark cycle (e.g., prolonged light period, prolonged dark period). Under all light/dark regimes, there was a close correlation between change in properties of PEP carboxylase and changes of the tissue from acidification to deacidification, and vice versa. Changes in properties of PEP carboxylase were not merely light/dark phenomena because they were also observed in plants exposed to continuous light or dark. the data indicate that, during CAM, PEP carboxylase exists in two stages which differ in their capacity for net malate synthesis. The physiologically-active state is distinguished by a low K _m for PEP and a high K _i for malate and favors malate synthesis. The physiologically-inactive state has a high K _m for PEP and a low K _i for malate and exists during periods of deacidification and other periods lacking synthesis of malic acid.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PEPC PEP carboxylase - RuBP ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate - RH relative humidity     

Shifts in the Carbon Metabolism of Xerosicyos danguyi H. Humb. (Cucurbitaceae) Brought About by Water Stress : II. Enzymology

Xerosicyos danguyi Humbert (Cucurbitaceae) is a leaf succulent endemic to Madagascar. Under well-watered conditions, the plant exhibited Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) but shifted to a dampened form of CAM, CAM-idling, when subjected to water stress. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the effects of a shift in carbon metabolism on phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and on NADP-malic enzyme in X. danguyi. Experiments were conducted to determine the diurnal patterns of enzyme activity and pH optima of both enzymes, as well as the approximate molecular mass, kinetic patterns, malate inhibition, and glucose-6-phosphate stimulation of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase. The two enzymes extracted from well-watered and water-stressed plants were similar in most parameters investigated; thus, CAM-idling appeared to be only a dampened form of CAM photosynthesis.     

Properties of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase in desalted extracts from isolated guard-cell protoplasts

Properties of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) obtained from isolated guard-cell protoplasts of Vicia faba L. were determined following rapidly desalting of the extract on a Sephadex G 25 column. The activity of PEP carboxylase was measured as a function of PEP and malate concentration, pH and K⁺ concentration within 2–3 min after homogenization of the guard-cell protoplasts. The activity of this enzyme was stimulated by PEP concentrations of 0.1 to 0.75 mM and by K⁺ ions (12 mM), but inhibited by PEP concentrations above 1 mM and by malate. Changes in the K_m(PEP) and V_max values with increasing malate concentrations (2.5 and 5 mM) indicate that the malate level, varying in relation to the physiological state of guard cells, plays an important role in regulating the properties of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - GCP guard-cell protoplast - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate Dedicated to Professor Dr. Hubert Ziegler on the occasion of his 60th birthday     

Rapid isolation and study of protoplasts obtained throughout the day-night cycle from leaves of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana showing different levels of crassulacean acid metabolism

A method is described for rapid enzymatic isolation of protoplasts from the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Kalanchoe blossfeldiana cv. Tom Thumb. Young leaves were sampled at low, middle or full CAM levels induced by increasing number of short-days (14, 31 and 49 SD). Maximum O₂ exchange in light or dark and maximum CO₂ fixation in light occur with protoplasts obtained at 1730 (end of the day) for all CAM levels. Dark CO₂ fixation, typical of CAM, is performed by protoplasts isolated in the middle of the night from plants having received at least 31 SD. Rates of dark CO₂ fixation by these protoplasts are of the same order as those of intact leaves. The capacity for O₂ exchange and CO₂ fixation increases with the level of CAM. These protoplasts retain characteristics typical of CAM, such as diurnal oscillations in phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31; PEPC) capacity and malate content.     

Changes in oxidative properties of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana leaf mitochondria during development of Crassulacean acid metabolism

Kalanchoe blossfeldiana plants grown under long days (16 h light) exhibit a C₃-type photosynthetic metabolism. Switching to short days (9 h light) leads to a gradual development of Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). Under the latter conditions, dark CO₂ fixation produces large amounts of malate. During the first hours of the day, malate is rapidly decarboxylated into pyruvate through the action of a cytosolic NADP⁺-or a mitochondrial NAD⁺-dependent malic enzyme. Mitochondria were isolated from leaves of plants grown under long days or after treatment by an increasing number of short days. Tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates as well as exogenous NADH and NADPH were readily oxidized by mitochondria isolated from the two types of plants. Glycine, known to be oxidized by C₃-plant mitochondria, was still oxidized after CAM establishment. The experiments showed a marked parallelism in the increase of CAM level and the increase in substrate-oxidation capacity of the isolated mitochondria, particularly the capacity to oxidize malate in the presence of cyanide. These simultaneous variations in CAM level and in mitochondrial properties indicate that the mitochondrial NAD⁺-malic enzyme could account at least for a part of the oxidation of malate. The studies of whole-leaf respiration establish that mitochondria are implicated in malate degradation in vivo. Moreover, an increase in cyanide resistance of the leaf respiration has been observed during the first daylight hours, when malate was oxidized to pyruvate by cytosolic and mitochondrial malic enzymes.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - MDH malate dehydrogenase - ME malic enzyme     

Day-night changes in the levels of adenine nucleotides,phosphoenolpyruvate and inorganic pyrophosphate in leaves of plants having Crassulacean acid metabolism

The levels of phosphorylated compounds studied during the dark period of Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in Kalanchoë leaves showed increases for ATP and pyrophosphate and decreases for ADP, AMP and phosphenolpyruvate; levels of inorganic phosphate remained constant. Changes in adenylate levels and the correlated nocturnal increase in adenylate-energycharge were closely related to changes in malate levels. The increase in ATP levels was much inhibited in CO₂-free air and stimulated after induction of CAM in short-day-treated plants of K. blossfeldiana cv. Tom Thumb. Changes in levels of phosphoenolpyruvate and pyrophosphate were independent of the presence of CO₂. The results show the operation of complex regulatory mechanisms in the energy metabolism of CAM plants during nocturnal malic-acid accumulation.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - FW fresh weight - OAA oxaloacetic acia - PEP phosphoenol pyruvate - PP_i pyrophosphate     

The compartmentation of carboxylating and decarboxylating enzymes in guard cell protoplasts

Guard cell and mesophyll cell protoplasts of Vicia faba L. were purified and separated into cytoplasmic and plastid fractions by a selective silicone-oil filtration. Before fractionation, the protoplasts were ruptured by a low speed centrifugation through a narrow-aperture nylon net placed in a plastic vial. This protoplast homogenation and subsequently the silicone-oil fractionation offer the possibility of investigating the comparatmentation of the enzymatic carboxylating (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase EC 4.1.1.39, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase EC 4.1.1.31, NAD⁺ and NADP⁺ linked malate dehydrogenase EC 1.1.1.37) and decarboxylating pathways of malic (malic enzyme EC 1.1.1.40, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase EC 4.1.1.32, pyruvate orthophosphate dikinase EC 2.7.9.1) which occur during the swelling and shrinking of the guard cell protoplasts. A model is proposed which describes the transport processes of malic acid during the starch-malate balance as correlated to the volume changes of the protoplasts. As the enzymes and their compartmentation in the guard cell protoplasts seem to be consistent with those of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants, the metabolism of stomata and of CAM cells is compared.Abbreviations AQ anthraquinone-2-sulfonic acid - CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - DCPIP_red 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol - DTT dithiothreitol - EDTA ethylendiamine tetraacetic acid - GAPDH glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase - HEPES N-2-hydroxyethyl-piperazine-N-2-ethane sulphonic acid - MDH malante dehydrogenase - MES 2(N-morpholino) ethane sulphonic acid - OAA oxaloacetic acid - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PSI photosystem I - KuP₂ ribulose bisphosphate     

Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in Kalanchoë: Changes in intercellular CO2 concentration during a normal CAM cycle and during cycles in continuous light or darkness

In the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Kalanchoë daigremontiana, the internal CO₂ concentrations were measured throughout CAM cycles by gas chromatography. Under normal dark-light cycles, the internal CO₂ concentration was near that of the ambient air and increased up to 0.5% during the phase of maximum malate decarboxylation. A sharp increase in internal CO₂ concentration occurring after the first 12 h of the cycle was exhibited by the plants both when there was a normal day-night cycle and when the night was replaced by illumination, and also when the light period was replaced by darkness. Thus, the increase in internal CO₂ in the morning does not appear to be primarily determined by a light-on signal or by alterations of temperature rather than by inherent factors of the leaves. This view is supported further by a steep increase in ¹⁴CO₂ production from labeted malate occurring during extended darkness at a time when the light period would normally begin. The results are discussed in particular in relation to of how CAM can control stomata movement.Abbreviation CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism     

Studies on carbon flow in Crassulacean acid metabolism during the initial light period

In the Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plants Kalanchoë tubiflora and Sedum morganianum a shift in the pathways occurs by which external CO₂ enters the metabolism during the initial light period (phase II of the diurnal CAM cycle). At the beginning of phase II, CO₂ is fixed mainly by the C₄ pathway; during late phase II, however, it is fixed mainly via the C₃ pathway. The C₃ pathway contributes to the phosphoenolpyruvate-carboxylase-mediated CO₂ fixation by the provision of three-carbon skeletons. Since the shift in the carbon-flow pathway is delayed after a CO₂-free night when malic-acid accumulation in the vacuoles is prevented, it is very likely that the amount of malic acid in the vacuole is integrated in the mechanism which controls CAM during the initial light period. A light-on signal at the beginning of phase II is not required to bring about the shifts in the carbon-flow pathways, as is shown by the reaction of plants to a prolonged dark period. A model of carbon flow during phase II is proposed.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP-Case phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase     

Effects of temperature on the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and on the control of CO2 fixation in Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi

The phosphorylation state and the malate sensitivity of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPCase, EC 4.1.1.31) in Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi Hamet et Perrier are altered by changes in the ambient temperature. These effects, in turn alter the in-vivo activity of the enzyme. Low temperature (3 °C or less), stabilizes the phosphorylated form of the enzyme, while high temperature (30 °C) promotes its dephosphorylation. The catalytic activity of the phosphorylated and dephosphorylated forms of PEPCase increases with temperature, but the apparent K _i values for malate of both forms of the enzyme decrease. Results of experiments with detached leaves maintained in darkness in normal air indicate that the changes in malate sensitivity and phosphorylation state of PEPCase with temperature are of physiological significance. When the phosphorylated form of PEPCase is stabilized by reducing the temperature of leaves 9 h after transfer to constant darkness at 15 °C, a prolonged period of CO₂ fixation follows. When leaves are maintained in constant darkness at 15 °C until CO₂ output reaches a low steady-state level and the PEPCase is dephosphorylated, reducing the temperature to 3 °C results in a further period of CO₂ fixation even though the phosphorylation state of PEPCase does not change.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - PEPCase phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase We thank the Agricultural and Food Research Council for financial support for this work.     

Activity and quantity of ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase-and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase-protein in two Crassulacean acid metabolism plants in relation to leaf age,nitrogen nutrition,and point in time during a day/night cycle

Activity of ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP) carboxylase in leaf extracts of the constitutive Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. decreased with increasing leaf age, whereas the activity of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxylase increased. Changes in enzyme activities were associated with changes in the amount of enzyme proteins as determined by immunochemical analysis, sucrose density gradient centrifugation, and SDS gel electrophoresis of leaf extracts. Young developing leaves of plants which received high amounts of NO ₃ ^- during growth contained about 30% of the total soluble protein in the form of RuBP carboxylase; this value declined to about 17% in mature leaves. The level of PEP carboxylase in young leaves of plants at high NO ₃ ^- was an estimated 1% of the total soluble protein and increased to approximately 10% in mature leaves, which showed maximum capacity for dark CO₂ fixation. The growth of plants at low levels of NO ₃ ^- decreased the content of soluble protein per unit leaf area as well as the extractable activity and the percentage contribution of both RUBP carboxylase and PEP carboxylase to total soluble leaf protein. There was no definite change in the ratio of RuBP carboxylase to PEP carboxylase activity with a varying supply of NO ₃ ^- during growth. It has been suggested (e.g., Planta 144, 143–151, 1978) that a rhythmic pattern of synthesis and degradation of PEP carboxylase protein is involved in the regulation of -carboxylation during a day/night cycle in CAM. No such changes in the quantity of PEP carboxylase protein were observed in the leaves of Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers. or in the leaves of the inducible CAM plant Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - RuBP ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - G-6-P glucose-6-phosphate     

Changes in the isozymic pattern of phosphoenolpyruvate

Two major isofunctional forms of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31) have been separated from the leaves of Kalanchoe blossfeldiana Poelln. Tom Thumb by acrylamide gel electrophoresis and diethylaminoethyl cellulose techniques: one of the forms prevails under long-day treatment (low crassulacean acid metabolism level), the other develops under short-day treatment (high Crassulacean acid metabolism level). Molecular weights are significantly different: 175·10³ and 186·10³, respectively. These results indicate that two populations of phosphoenolyruvate carboxylase are present in the plant, one of which is responsible for Crassulacean acid metabolism activity under the control of photoperiod.The Crassulacean acid metabolism appears to depend on the same endogenous clock that governs other photoperiodically controlled events (e.g. flowering). The metabolic and energetic significance of this feature is discussed. It is suggested that modification in isozymic composition could be an early step in the response to photoperiodism at the metabolic level.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - PEP phosphoenolpyruvate - DEAE diethylaminoethyl - DTT dithiothreitol - LD long day - SD short day - BSA bovine serum albumin     

Persistent circadian rhythms in the phosphorylation state of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase from Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi leaves and in its sensitivity to inhibition by malate

Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (EC 4.1.1.31; PEPCase) from Bryophyllum fedtschenkoi leaves has previously been shown to exist in two forms in vivo. During the night the enzyme is phosphorylated and relatively insensitive to feedback inhibition by malate whereas during the day the enzyme is dephosphorylated and more sensitive to inhibition by malate. These properties of PEPCase have now been investigated in leaves maintained under constant conditions of temperature and lighting. When leaves were maintained in continuous darkness and CO₂-free air at 15°C, PEPCase exhibited a persistent circadian rhythm of interconversion between the two forms. There was a good correlation between periods during which the leaves were fixing respiratory CO₂ and periods during which PEPCase was in the form normally observed at night. When leaves were maintained in continuous light and normal air at 15°C, starting at the end of a night or the end of a day, a circadian rhythm of net uptake of CO₂ was observed. Only when these constant conditions were applied at the end of a day was a circadian rhythm of interconversions between the two forms of PEPCase observed and the rhythms of enzyme interconversion and CO₂ uptake did not correlate in phase or period.Abbreviations CAM Crassulacean acid metabolism - FW fresh weight - PEPCase phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase - RuBPCase ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase To whom correspondence should be addressed.