西太湖水生植物时空变化

水生植物在浅水湖泊生态系统中具有十分重要的作用。根据中国科学院太湖湖泊生态系统研究站1989年以来的常规监测资料,将西太湖（除东太湖以外的湖区）划分为9个区,采用点截法（point intercept method）,于2002～2005年对各区水生植物的种类、生物量和空间分布情况进行了6次调查。结果表明：西太湖现有水生植物16种,分属于11科12属;水生植物总面积约10220hm^2,其中沉水植物分布面积约占64．58％;挺水植物约占0．29％;漂浮植物约占38．16％。各个种之间生物量差异显著,马来眼子菜、荇菜、芦苇的生物量在所有水生植物中居前3位。多样性分析表明,水生植物种类4a来未发生明显变化,但种类和生物量季节性差异较大。水生植物呈环状分布在距湖岸5km以内的水域和部分岛屿周围,东岸和南岸为水生植物的主要集中分布区域,分布区连续性好,且水草种类齐全。挺水植物种类单一,仅有芦苇（Phragmites communis）一种,分布区域多限于水深小于1．6m的湖岸;沉水植物共有8种,为水生植物的主要组成部分,马来眼子菜（Potamogeton malaianus）的分布频度最高,在西山岛周围水域逐年扩张,成为该区域的先锋种;漂浮植物3种,主要以荇菜（Nymphoides peltata）为主,在七都水域有逐渐扩张的趋势。马来眼子菜、芦苇、荇菜表现出对水环境较强的适应能力,目前为西太湖的3个优势种。20世纪50年代以来,西太湖水生植物种类减少了50种,其中水质下降是导致水生植物种类不断减少甚至消失的一个重要原因。围网养殖和不合理的捕捞方式也对局部水域的植物造成极大的破坏。水生植物生存环境日益严峻,种群单一化趋势日益明显。     

An experimental system to study ecophysiological responses of submerged macrophytes to temperature and light

An experimental growth system was devised to study the ecophysiological responses of submerged macrophytes to temperature and light. Using the system, a pilot study was conducted to compare responses to light of three representative species common to the littoral zone of Lake Biwa: Vallisneria asiatica Miki var. biwaensis Miki, which is endemic to Japan, Potamogeton maackianus A. Benn., a dominant submerged macrophyte in Lake Biwa, and Elodea nuttallii (Planch.) St. John, one of the most influential submerged exotic macrophytes naturalized in Japan. Different relative growth rate responses and other growth parameters among the species were observed. We ascertained the experimental system to be useful for the comparison of ecophysiological responses of submerged macrophytes.     

Dynamics of submerged macrophyte populations in response to biomanipulation

1. A 6‐year study (1992–97) of changes in submerged vegetation after biomanipulation was carried out in the eutrophicated Lake Finjasjön, Southern Sweden. Ten sites around the lake were revisited each year. At each site five samples of above‐ground biomass were taken at 10 cm water depth intervals. An investigation of the seed bank at the 10 sites, and a grazing experiment where birds and large fish were excluded was also conducted. 2. Between 1992 and 1996, in shallow areas (water depth < 3 m), vegetation cover increased from < 3 to 75% and above‐ground biomass from < 1 to 100 g DW m^–2. Mean outer water depth increased from 0.3 to 2.5 m. Elodea canadensis and Myriophyllum spicatum accounted for > 95% of the increase in biomass and plant cover. The following year (1997), however, cover and above‐ground biomass decreased, mainly attributable to the total disappearance of E. canadensis. Secchi depth increased after biomanipulation until 1996, but decreased again in 1997. 3. Total and mean number of submerged species increased after biomanipulation, probably as a result of the improved light climate. However, after the initial increase in species number there was a decrease during the following years, possibly attributed to competition from the rapidly expanding E. canadensis and M. spicatum. The lack of increase in species number after the disappearance of E. canadensis in 1997 implies that other factors also affected species richness. 4. A viable seed bank was not necessary for a rapid recolonization of submerged macrophytes, nor did grazing by waterfowl or fish delay the re‐colonization of submerged macrophytes. 5. Submerged macrophytes are capable of rapid recolonization if conditions improve, even in large lakes such as Finjasjön (11 km²). Species that spread by fragments will increase rapidly and probably outcompete other species. 6. The results indicate that after the initial Secchi depth increase, probably caused by high zooplankton densities, submerged vegetation further improved the light climate. The decrease in macrophyte biomass in 1997 may have caused the observed increase in phosphorus and chlorophyll a, and the decrease in Secchi depth. We suggest that nutrient competition from periphyton, attached to the macrophytes, may be an important factor in limiting phytoplankton production, although other factors (e.g. zooplankton grazing) are also of importance, especially as triggers for the shift to a clear‐water state.     

Assessing maximum depth distribution,vegetated area,and production of submerged macrophytes in shallow,turbid coastal lagoons of the southern Baltic Sea

Submerged macrophytes improve water quality in shallow coastal lagoons but eutrophication often resulted in a degradation of macrophytes. Management measures that protect and restore macrophyte stands require knowledge on what limits macrophyte distribution. Information on macrophyte production and distribution in the Darss-Zingst Bodden Chain (southern Baltic Sea) is lacking since an almost complete loss of submerged vegetation in the 1980s. Nutrient input was reduced in the 1990s and macrophytes seem to recover, although turbidity is high and light conditions are still poor. However, this recovery raised hope that returning macrophytes could stabilize sediments and improve water clarity. In this study, seasonal changes in photosynthesis–irradiance curves of selected macrophyte species were used to calculate potential primary production in different depths and turbidity situations. Bathymetry of the area is then used to assess depth distribution and vegetated area. Since the so-calculated depth limits correspond well with the actual depth distribution in the field, macrophyte depth distribution is concluded to be mostly determined by light conditions. Most macrophytes grow in very shallow areas up to 50 cm depth where also 70% of potential primary production takes place. Present light conditions do not support a further expansion of macrophyte distribution in the DZBC.     

Abrupt shift from clear to turbid state in a shallow eutrophic, biomanipulated lake

Monitoring data were used to assess causes behind a recent shift from a clear-water to a turbid-water state in Lake Major, a 10 ha shallow lake in Hungary. In 1999–2000, fish manipulation was conducted in this hypertrophic lake. Reduced fish stock resulted in clearing water and the development of a dense (>80% coverage) submerged vegetation in 2005. During the recent abrupt shift, which occurred in 2007, submerged vegetation subsequently declined after a two-year period of clear water and abundant vegetation. An intense decay of macrophytes within the lake produced a rapid transition between the clear- and turbid-water states. During the clear-water state in 2005–2006, the most important variables predominantly correlating with macrophyte cover were Secchi transparency, temperature and TN, while TN, temperature, Secchi depth and chlorophyll-a were the most significant variables during the turbid-water state in 2007. Nitrogen may play a significant role in the cover of submerged macrophytes when TP is moderate. We argue that several factors in concert are necessary to initiate a shift. Water temperature likely has contributed to triggering shift through inter-year-dependent changes in cover of macrophytes, with fish recruitment having key roles in the dynamics of shallow lakes. Handling editor: Luigi Naselli-Flores     

The effect of low water levels on the water quality of Lake Biwa

Because of a lack of precipitation, water levels in Lake Biwa, Japan, were extremely low between the beginning of September 1984 and the end of February 1985. Approximately 13 million people depend upon the lake as a source of drinking water and for industrial use, and the severe water shortage became a serious concern for downstream communities. Also, there was concern that deterioration of water quality caused by rotting macrophytes and the release of nutrients from vegetation and nearshore sediments might create additional problems.In this paper, the release of nutrients from vegetation and sediments is examined under conditions which simulate both calm and turbulent water motions in the nearshore, and the magnitude of nutrient loadings are estimated in relation to the specific effects of low lake level.Sample stations were established around the south shore of Lake Biwa. Sampling was undertaken at the time of low water and during the rising water levels. Sediment samples were particle sized into 7 groups (<2000 µm). Other measured values ranged as follows: BOD (0.5–1.3), COD (1.2–3.5), TP (0.019–0.037), SRP (0.013–0.030), SOP (0.005–0.007), TN (0.45–0.90), NO₂-N (0.004–0.007), NO₃-N (0.04–0.08) and NH₄-N (0.026–0.053), all as mgL^-1. The sample data suggest that, overall, there was little impact on lake water quality as a result of low water levels. However, remedial actions may have had an important and beneficial impact on nearshore water quality in the southern basin of Lake Biwa.     

Vegetation abundance in lowland flood plan lakes determined by surface area, age and connectivity

SUMMARY 1. We analysed the vegetation structure of 215 lakes in the flood plain of the river Lower Rhine in relation to environmental variables related to hydrological connectivity, lake morphometry, lake age and land use on adjacent land. 2. The frequency distribution of the cover of submerged macrophytes was not normal, implying that submerged macrophytes in any one lake were either scarce or abundant. 3. We observed clear water lakes with submerged macrophyte dominance over a wide range of total P concentration (0.020–0.40 mg total P L^?1). 4. Multiple logistic regression indicated that the probability of dominance by submerged macrophytes decreased markedly with the surface area, depth and age of the lakes. The surface area effect occurred independently of the depth. Further, there was a negative relationship between submerged macrophyte dominance and the long‐term annual duration of inundation by the river. 5. Nymphaeid cover showed a distinct optimum with respect to mean lake depth, being almost absent in lakes shallower than 0.5 m. In contrast to what was found for submerged plants, the probability of occurrence of nymphaeids increased with lake age. 6. The probability of helophyte occurrence increased with lake age, and decreased with the presence of trees, cattle grazing, surface area, use of manure and mean lake depth. 7. In all cases the critical level of one factor (e.g. mean lake depth) depended on other factors (e.g. surface area or age of lake). Thus, in the present study, small lakes tended to remain dominated by submerged macrophytes up to a greater depth than large lakes, and helophytes colonised smaller lakes in an earlier phase. 8. The effect of inundation by the river was modest. This could be because most of our lakes are rarely inundated during the growing season and experience only moderate current velocities while flooded. 9. The results have practical implications for future management of flood plains for conservation purposes. In new water bodies, macrophyte domination will be promoted if many small shallow lakes, rather than few large deep ones, are excavated.     

Wave exposure related growth of epiphyton: implications for the distribution of submerged macrophytes in eutrophic lakes

The distribution of submerged macrophytes in eutrophic lakes has been found to be skewed towards sites with intermediate exposure to waves. Low submerged macrophyte biomass at exposed sites has been explained by, for instance, physical damage from waves. The aim of this study was to investigate if lower biomass at sheltered sites compared to sites with intermediate exposure to waves can be caused by competition from epiphyton.Investigations were performed in eutrophic lakes in southern Sweden. Samples of submerged macrophytes and epiphytic algae on the macrophytes were taken along a wave exposure gradient. The amount of epiphyton (AFDW) per macrophyte biomass decreased with increased exposure. Biomass of submerged macrophytes, on the other hand, increased with increased exposure until a relatively abrupt disappearance of submerged vegetation occurred at high exposures. Production of epiphytic algae was monitored on artificial substrates from June to September at a sheltered and an exposed site in three lakes. It was higher at sheltered sites compared with exposed sites.We suggest that epiphytic algae may be an important factor in limiting the distribution of submerged macrophytes at sheltered sites in eutrophic lakes.     

Assessment of littoral eutrophication in Lake Ohrid by submerged macrophytes

Submerged macrophytes are useful indicators of nutrient pollution in the littoral of lakes. We analyzed submerged macrophytes at 30 sites in Lake Ohrid (20 in the Macedonian and 10 in the Albanian part). In total, we found 29 macrophyte species, which belong to 9 families. In order to describe and compare nutrient pollution in different parts of Lake Ohrid, and to introduce monitoring methods which are consistent with the demands of the Water Framework Directive we calculated the macrophyte index for each site. The results show that nutrient pollution generally is low in the majority of the investigated sites. There are, however, marked differences among sites, with some sites at the southern part of the lake being more polluted. There also is a marked difference in nutrient pollution between shallow and deeper water. The values of the macrophyte index in deeper waters (> 4 m) indicate that the nutrient pollution is very low, while in shallow waters (< 2 m) it is moderate or moderate-immense.     

Loss of Submerged Macrophytes in Shallow Lakes in North‐Eastern Germany

During the 1950s, the submerged vegetation of shallow lakes in north‐eastern Germany was dominated by nutrient tolerant species, with Ceratophyllum demersum and Myriophyllum sp. being most common. Almost one third of 300 investigated lakes had already lost their submerged macrophytes at that time. Very shallow lakes showed either high or low macrophyte abundance. Increasing depth resulted in medium macrophyte abundances, which may contribute to the stabilisation of local or temporary clearwater states. Forty years later, the percentage of lakes without macrophytes had dramatically increased. Between 55 and 85% of the investigated lakes showed a low abundance. The decline was most pronounced in very shallow lakes. The majority of the investigated lakes showed summer TP concentrations below 100 μg L^–1, but no colonisation by submerged macrophytes, which indicates a resilience against re‐colonisation.     

Colonization and succession of submerged macrophytes in shallow Lake Væng during the first five years following fish manipulation

Colonization of submerged macrophytes and changes in species composition were studied in shallow Lake Væng during the first five years (1987–91) following fish manipulation in 1986–1988 and a resultant significant improvement in lake water transparency. No submerged macrophytes were present in the lake from 1981–1986, during which time the summer mean Secchi depth ranged from 0.6 and 0.8 m. From 1987 to 1990, Secchi depth increased from 0.9 m to 1.8 m and macrophyte coverage consequently increased (1 % of the lake area in 1987, 2% in 1988, 50% in 1989, 80% in 1990 and 90% in 1991). At the same time, the macrophytes became taller, and the weedbeds more dense. The macrophytes colonized from the exposed and deeper part of the lake towards the sheltered and more shallow part of the lake, a colonization pattern that was confirmed by transplantation experiments. The delay in colonization of the shallow parts may be caused by waterfowl grazing. The vegetation was initially dominated by Potamogeton crispus L., but there was a gradual change during 1988–1989 and Elodea canadensis Michx became exclusively dominant in 1990–1991.     

The contribution of epiphyton to the primary production of tropical floodplain wetlands

Tropical floodplains are one of the most productive ecosystems on earth. Studies on floodplain productivity have primarily focused on trees and macrophytes, rather than algae, due to their greater biomass. However, epiphyton—algae and bacteria attached to the submerged portion of aquatic macrophytes—is a major source of energy in many tropical floodplains. Epiphyton productivity rates are unknown for most tropical floodplain wetlands, and spatial variability is not well understood. In this study, we measured primary productivity of epiphyton in Kakadu National Park in northern Australia. We estimated the relative contribution of epiphyton to aquatic production (epiphyton, + phytoplankton + macrophytes). We sampled sites dominated by different macrophyte structural types: vertical emerging grasses, horizontal emerging grasses, submerged macrophytes, and macrophytes with floating leaves. Epiphyton productivity was highly influenced by the structural type of the macrophyte. Highest potential productivity per weight was measured from epiphyton growing on macrophytes with floating leaves and horizontal grasses (1.52 ± 0.53 and 1.82 ± 0.61 mgC/dw g epiphyton/h, respectively) and lowest in submerged macrophytes and vertical grasses (0.57 ± 0.26 and 0.66 ± 0.47 mgC/dw g epiphyton/h, respectively). When considering the areal biomass of the macrophyte and the amount of epiphyton attached, epiphyton on horizontal grasses and submerged macrophytes had productivity values approximately ten times higher (45–219 mgC/m²/d) compared to those on vertical grasses and macrophytes with floating leaves (2–18 mgC/m²/d). Epiphyton contributed between 2 to 13 percent to the aquatic production of these tropical floodplain wetlands.     

Chironomid stratigraphy in the shallow and eutrophic Lake Søbygaard, Denmark: chironomid–macrophyte co-occurrence

1. A sediment core from the shallow, hypertrophic Lake Søbygaard (mean depth ∼1 m; [TP] 310 μg P L⁻¹) was analysed for subfossil remains to reconstruct chironomid community changes in relation to the succession and disappearance of aquatic macrophytes. 2. Species composition in the 1.10 m core indicates a succession from a 'naturally' eutrophic state to a hypertrophic state during recent centuries. Radiometric dating (²¹⁰Pb) of the uppermost 20 cm of the sediment core (∼1932–93) indicates that sediment accumulation rate had doubled in recent decades. 3. Changes in chironomid assemblages were in close agreement with changes in both diatoms and macrophyte remains in the same core. Distinct changes in chironomid communities reflect the eutrophication process and macrophyte succession through Chara , Ceratophyllum and Potamogeton dominance to the present state, with complete loss of submerged vegetation and dominance by phytoplankton. 4. The co-occurrence and relationship between aquatic macrophyte diversity and recent subfossil chironomid assemblages were assessed from an additional 25 Danish lakes. There was good agreement between the macrophyte and chironomid-based lake groupings. Overall, a significant difference ( P <0.001) was found in chironomid assemblages among lakes in different macrophyte classes. In a pair-wise comparison, the poorly buffered mesotrophic lakes and the alkaline eutrophic lakes had significantly different chironomid assemblages. 5. Chironomid taxa commonly reported to be associated with macrophytes ( Cricotopus , Endochironomus and Glyptotendipes ) were shown also to be indicators of highly productive lakes lacking abundant submerged vegetation.     

梁子湖六种沉水植物种群数量和生物量周年动态

研究了梁子湖子湖之一满江湖的六种沉水植物种群数量和生物量在1997.3-1998.3的月动态。结果表明:满江湖沉水植物群落中,优势种为黄丝草、金鱼藻和穗状狐尾藻;六种沉水植物种群最大密度、最大单位面积生物量出现的月份各不相同,但两者变化的趋势一致。黄丝草、穗状狐尾藻种群为增长型种群,金鱼藻、苦草、黑藻种群稳定发展,菹草种群有衰退的趋势。沉水植物群落的最大生物量达到4676g/m2(鲜重,10月),总水草的最大密度为1865枝/m2(11月).根据1997年3-12月植物生长期内的数据,拟合出了六种沉水植物和总水草的生长模型方程。       

A comparison of irradiance and phosphorus effects on the growth of three submerged macrophytes

A fully factorial pond experiment was designed using two irradiance levels and two phosphorus concentrations to investigate irradiance and phosphorus effects on the growth of three submerged macrophytes: common waterweed (Elodea canadensis), Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), and water stargrass (Zosterella dubia). Results revealed that higher irradiance (230 μmol s⁻¹ m⁻² vs. 113 μmol s⁻¹ m⁻² at 2 m depth) had significant positive effects on submerged macrophyte growth: increasing the number of individuals (seven-fold), the number of species surviving (two-fold), aboveground biomass (11-fold), belowground biomass (10-fold), and total biomass (11-fold), whereas elevated sediment phosphorus (2.1–3.3 mg g⁻¹ vs. 0.7 mg g⁻¹ dry sediment) did not have any significant impact. However, responses to irradiance differ among macrophyte species due to their morphology and physiology. Waterweed increased in numbers of individuals and total biomass under high irradiance while biomass per individual remained the same (∼0.02 g). The other species increased both in numbers and biomass per individual. These results suggest that increased irradiance rather than decreased phosphorus loading is the main driver of changes in submerged macrophytes in North American temperate lake ecosystems.     

Effects of waterfowl, large fish and periphyton on the spring growth of Potamogeton pectinatus L. in Lake Mogan, Turkey

It has been argued that waterfowl and fish may threaten growth of submerged macrophytes, especially in spring during the early growth phase when plant biomass is low. A small reduction of biomass at that time might delay growth or decrease subsequent productivity. We investigated the impact of waterfowl and large fish on the spring growth of fennel pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatusL.) by employing an exclosure experiment in the macrophyte-dominated clear-water Lake Mogan, Turkey. Birds and large fish were excluded from eight plots and both in situvegetation and macrophytes kept in pots were compared to eight open plots. Also, to investigate the effect of periphyton on plant growth it was removed from half of the pot plants. Exclusion of waterfowl and fish may decrease predation on macroinvertebrates, which in turn may affect periphyton, and macrophyte growth, why macroinvertebrates also were sampled. Waterfowl density was high (15–70 ind. of coot, Fulica atraL. ha^–1), abundance of submerged plants was also high with a surface coverage of 70–80%, and benthivorous fish were present, mainly tench, (Tinca tincaL.) and carp, (Cyprinus carpioL.). Exclusion of waterfowl and large fish did not significantly affect the spring growth of pondweed; neither plants growing in situnor kept in pots. Removal of periphyton from the plants in the pots did not favour growth. The density of macroinvertebrates was not affected by the exclusion of waterfowl and large fish, but it was positively related to aboveground biomass of fennel pondweed. We suggest that even if waterfowl and large fish are in high densities, their effect on fennel pondweed spring growth in lakes with abundant submerged vegetation, such as Lake Mogan, is low.     

Ecological restoration in eutrophic Lake Wuli: A large enclosure experiment

A large-scale enclosure experiment for lake restoration was carried out in Lake Wuli, a northern bay of shallow and eutrophic Lake Taihu in China. The large enclosure with an area of 10 ha was set up in the littoral zone and was bordered by waterproof fabric which did not cover the sediments. Multiple approaches were used and included fish removal, piscivorous fish stocking, shoreline reconstruction, aquatic macrophyte planting, benthic macro-animal stocking, and silver carp cultivation in pens for reduction of cyanobacteria. The results showed that the coverage of aquatic macrophytes increased from 0% to 45.7%. Mean concentrations of TN and TP inside the enclosure from May 2004 to May 2008 were 22.2% and 26.0% of those outside, respectively. Secchi depth was 0.40 m outside the enclosures and 0.75 m inside. However, responses of phytoplankton to the restoration project lagged behind improvement of water quality and reestablishment of aquatic plants. The phytoplankton biomass gradually decreased after the third year of the restoration. Stocking piscivorous fish and planting submerged macrophytes could not increase zooplankton biomass and enhance graze pressure on phytoplankton, most likely due to high omnivorous fish density and lower nutrition inside the enclosure. Higher grazing pressure of zooplankton on phytoplankton was observed in May and October every year. Zooplankton to phytoplankton biomass ratios were significantly negatively correlated with phytoplankton biomass outside (r = −0.440, p < 0.01) and inside the enclosure (r = −0.336, p < 0.05) from February 2004 to March 2007. Therefore, phytoplankton biomass inside and outside the enclosure was lower in May and October. Higher grazing pressure of zooplankton on phytoplankton in spring may result in occurrence of the clear-water phase that facilitated growth of submerged macrophytes in the littoral in Lake Wuli, and a clear-water state and improved water quality would likely be sustained throughout the year after reestablishment of submerged macrophytes.     

Effects of land use on aquatic macrophyte diversity and water quality of ponds

1. Aquatic macrophyte diversity and water quality of 55 ponds in western Japan were related to land use and morphometric variables to identify the environmental factors that sustain biodiversity and the spatial extent at which these factors operate. 2. The relevant spatial extent for floating‐leaved macrophyte richness (500 m from pond edge) was larger than that for submerged macrophyte occurrence (10, 75 and 100 m), whereas emergent macrophyte richness was best explained at much larger extents (1000 m). Total macrophyte richness was explained at the extent of 500, 750 and 1000 m. The extents relevant for explaining the physicochemical condition of pond water (100 and 250 m) were similar to those for submerged and floating‐leaved macrophytes, suggesting that these two growth forms are more sensitive to water quality compared to emergent macrophytes. 3. Diversity of all three growth forms and that of total macrophytes collectively were inversely related to turbidity and nutrient concentration; among the three growth forms, submerged macrophytes were most affected by water quality. 4. Negative relationships were found between the proportion of urban area and the diversity of the three growth forms and that of total macrophytes and water quality. Species richness of emergent, floating‐leaved and total macrophytes decreased with depth and increased with surface area up to about 5000 m², above which it declined. 5. Urbanisation and enlargement of ponds were the two main factors that decreased aquatic macrophyte diversity in irrigation ponds. To alleviate the adverse effects of urban areas on aquatic macrophyte diversity, our results suggest that management efforts should focus on the creation of buffer zones within the relevant spatial extent from the pond edge.     

Seasonality of macrophytes and interaction with flow in a New Zealand lowland stream

Introduced submerged macrophytes have come to dominate many shallow water bodies in New Zealand, and are a common component of many lowland streams. We investigated the seasonal variation of macrophyte abundance, its influence on flow and channel volume, and the implications of this on stream habitat and functioning in Whakapipi Stream, a typical lowland stream draining a predominantly agricultural catchment.Abundance of macrophytes over the summer was primarily controlled by the phenological cycles of the two dominant species. Mean minimum total macrophyte biomass (36 g m^–2) and cover (7%) occurred in winter (June and August, respectively), and mean maximum biomass (324 g m^–2), and cover (79%) occurred in late summer (March and February respectively). Egeria densa comprised the majority of both cover and biomass during the study period, except early summer (December) when Potamogeton crispus was prevalent in the shallow stream reaches.Macrophyte beds had a major impact on summer stream velocities, reducing average velocities by an estimated 41%. Stream cross-sectional area was maintained at relatively stable levels similar to that recorded over winter, when stream discharge was in the order of seven times greater. The mean velocity distribution coefficient (), and Manning's roughness coefficient (n) were dependent on and displayed a positive linear relationship with macrophyte abundance. The velocity distribution coefficient is recommended as a better indicator of macrophyte effects on velocity in natural streams, as it does not assume uniform velocity, channel depth and slope within the stream reach.Our study shows that submerged macrophytes play an important structuring role within the stream during the summer period, where macrophyte beds act as semi-permeable dams, retarding flow velocities and increasing stream depth and cross-sectional area. This promotes habitat heterogeneity by creating a greater range of flow velocity variation, and also provides large stable low-flow areas. Other likely ecosystem effects resulting from macrophyte/velocity interactions include increased sedimentation, potential for nutrient processing and increased primary production, both by macrophytes and attached epiphyton. The complex architecture of submerged macrophytes and their influence on stream flow may also provide an increased diversity of habitat for other aquatic biota. We propose that management of degraded lowland streams such as the Whakapipi Stream to maintain stretches with moderate quantities of submerged macrophytes interspersed with shaded areas would optimise stream health during low summer flows.     

Effects of elevated turbidity on shallow lake fish communities

Synopsis We compared the fish communities of two shallow lakes in the lower Waikato River basin, North Island, New Zealand, to determine the effects of elevated suspended solids (SS) and collapse of submerged macrophytes. Lake Waahi was turbid (20–40 g m^-3 SS) and devoid of submerged macrophytes whereas Lake Whangape was clearer (5 g m^-3 SS) and dominated by submerged macrophytes. The lakes had similar fish species richness and had nine major species in common; representing eight families including Anguillidae, Retropinnidae, Galaxiidae, Eleotridae, Mugilidae, Ictaluridae, Poeciliidae, and Cyprinidae (two species). The only major fish that was absent from Lake Waahi was a lacustrine form of the common smelt, Retropinna retropinna, which disappeared after the lake became turbid in the late 1970s. CPUE, condition, and size of most species in Lake Waahi were similar to, or greater than, those in Lake Whangape. Lake Whangape clearly exceeded Lake Waahi only for CPUE of two species. Within Lake Whangape two species displayed significantly greater condition, and one species greater size, in a turbid arm of the lake than in the main basin. Apart from lacustrine Retropinna retropinna, the fish in these lakes appear well adapted to cope with, or to avoid, the direct toxic effects of suspended and settleable solids on sensitive early developmental stages. In Lake Waahi loss of cover and food provided by submerged macrophytes appears to have been compensated for by increased turbidity and an associated increase in the biomass of the mysid, Tenagomysis chiltoni (a major prey item).