TILLERING AND MORTALITY OF THE SALT MARSH CORDGRASS,SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA

Recruitment and mortality of Spartina alterniflora tillers and culms were estimated from measurements of live standing crops at Wallops Island, Virginia. Stands of tall and medium form grass produced from 452 to 1,227 tillers m⁻² yr⁻¹. Those tillered in spring lengthened into culms their first year, while those tillered in late summer and fall may have overwintered and lengthened into culms their second year. Biennial growth was most prevalent in tall form Spartina. Fifty-six to sixty-one percent of all tillers died before lengthening into culms. Of the remainder, 9 to 56% died as culms before the time of flowering. Sixty-three percent of the surviving culms of tall form Spartina flowered, compared to only 14 to 23% in medium form. Mortality of tillers and culms removed 16 to 35% of the annual production of Spartina biomass from live standing crops before the time of flowering.     

SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF THE DOMINANT SALT MARSH GRASS SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA IN AN OIL INDUSTRY SALINE WASTEWATER

Saline oil produced water (PW) is the largest wastewater stream in the oil exploration and production processes. Although eventual disposal of PW into shallow coastal waters occurs nearby coastal wetlands, no studies regarding its toxicity to higher plants were found in our literature review. To fill this knowledge gap and evaluate the potential use of this halophyte for PW phytoremediation the salt marsh grass Spartina alterniflora was grown in five PW concentrations and no PW treatment control for seven weeks. The oil & grease, NaCl, and ammonium (N-NH4⁺) concentrations in the PW were 120 mg L^?1, 30 g L^?1, and 381 mg L^?1, respectively. Plants grown in 30% PW and 10% PW achieved survival rates (75%) significantly higher than plants grown in 100% PW (35% survival). LT50 of S. alterniflora to raw PW with 120 mg L^?1 of oil & grease (100% PW) was estimated at 30 days. Root and sprout biomass were significantly stimulated by PW; plants grown in 10% to 50% PW concentrations were 70–300% more productive than those in control, 80% PW and 100% PW, respectively. No significant inhibitory effects on survival or growth were detected for concentrations of PW less than 80% when compared to control. Our results pointed out that S. alterniflora grows in saline oil PW and its potential use to phytoremediate this effluent should be evaluated.     

互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)草场土壤微生物生态分布及某些酶活性的研究

种植互花米草的盐沼土中,细菌、放线菌和真菌的数量比对照盐沼土中多。就不同深度来说,15—30厘米土层中,细菌数最多。细菌总数的增减趋势是:夏秋两季最多,冬春两季较少。在各生理类群中,氨化细菌占优势;固氮细菌、硝化细菌次之;反硝化细菌和硫酸盆还原细菌最少。内源呼吸作用强度、添加葡萄糖后的呼吸作用强度、氧化丙酮酸的能力和氧化多酚化合物的能力皆显示出同样的趋势,即三年生草场土壤中生物活性最强,光滩土壤中生物活性最弱。在光滩土壤中,脲酶和过氧化氢酶活性很低,而种植互花米草的土壤中这两种酶活性较强,但与种植年限和季节变化无显著相关性。     

互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)草场土壤微生物生态分布及某些酶活性的研究

种植互花米草的盐沼土中,细菌、放线菌和真菌的数量比对照盐沼土中多。就不同深度来说,15—30厘米土层中,细菌数最多。细菌总数的增减趋势是:夏秋两季最多,冬春两季较少。在各生理类群中,氨化细菌占优势;固氮细菌、硝化细菌次之;反硝化细菌和硫酸盆还原细菌最少。内源呼吸作用强度、添加葡萄糖后的呼吸作用强度、氧化丙酮酸的能力和氧化多酚化合物的能力皆显示出同样的趋势,即三年生草场土壤中生物活性最强,光滩土壤中生物活性最弱。在光滩土壤中,脲酶和过氧化氢酶活性很低,而种植互花米草的土壤中这两种酶活性较强,但与种植年限和季节变化无显著相关性。     

ANATOMICAL AND METABOLIC RESPONSES TO WATERLOGGING AND SALINITY IN SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA AND S. PATENS (POACEAE)

The effects of waterlogging and salinity (25 or 325 mol m ³ NaCl) stressors on the anatomy and metabolism of the marsh grasses 5. alterniflora Loisel. and S. patens Aiton (Muhl.) were investigated in a V factorial greenhouse experiment over 30 d. Waterlogging and salinity in combination resulted in anatomical and metabolic responses in both species. Waterlogging reduced soil redox potential and decreased root-specific gravity significantly in both species. The inadequacy of aerenchyma development under hypoxia to support aerobic root respiration in S. patens was indicated by significant increases in root alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity of 1,752% and 420%, respectively, in the low and high salinity treatments. ADH activity was not increased significantly by flooding of S. alterniflora. Proline concentrations in roots and leaves were low at low salinities and increased significantly at high salinities in both species, but only under drained conditions. Decrease in leaf elongation by high salinity occurred in drained, but not flooded treatments in both species. Under flooded conditions, leaf elongation was significantly greater in S. alterniflora than S. patens. Greatest leaf elongation occurred in flooded low salinity S. alterniflora plants that had the least proline. Although both species are adapted to waterlogging and salinity, S. alterniflora appears to be more tolerant of reducing soil conditions and less responsive to higher salinity than S. patens.     

互花米草、狐米草和大绳草茎秆的比较解剖观察

互花米草、狐米草和大绳草的表皮均由长细胞、短细胞(栓质细胞和硅质细胞)、盐腺和气孔器组成。它们成纵行交互排列。盐腺的结构与大米草相似,但三个种的盐腺和气孔器的数目不同,尤其以大绳草最多。它们的内部结构是由气道、不同大小的维管束、基本组织以及厚壁组织组成。然而,维管束的数目及厚壁组织的发育各不相同。狐米草和大绳草有高度木质化的厚壁组织细胞,而互花米草的厚壁组织木质化较弱。大绳草的维管束多于其他两种。     

淡咸水轮换浇灌抑制互花米草的克隆生长和繁殖

作为典型的盐沼植物,入侵种互花米草(Spartina alterniflora)具有较强的耐盐性,能否以淡水或淡咸水的轮换浇灌扰乱其耐盐机制,降低其生态入侵性,进而寻求其控制对策是一个重要命题。为此,对互花米草进行了6种浇灌处理:单一的淡水(D)或咸水(X)浇灌;1次浇灌转换,即先淡水后咸水(DX)或先咸水后淡水(XD);2次浇灌转换,即由淡水开始转而咸水,再转而淡水(DXD),或由咸水开始转而淡水,再转而咸水(XDX)。结果显示,D处理的总生物量最高,与其它各处理均差异显著(p<0.05),且是X处理的1.67倍;DXD和XDX处理的总生物量最低,与D和X处理的差异显著(p<0.05),两者均约为D处理的50%。浇灌处理对根冠比、茎重比、叶重比和根茎重比的影响不明显,对根重比有较大影响,X处理的根重比最高,与D处理的差异显著(p<0.05),但与DX、XD、DXD和XDX处理之间的差异不显著。D处理的克隆生长新生总株数(Propagule)最多,与其它处理均差异显著(p<0.05),且是X处理的1.34倍;DXD和XDX处理的新生总株数最少,与D和X处理的差异显著(p<0.05),仅为D处理的55%。浇灌处理对分蘖的影响明显,DX和DXD处理的分蘖数分别是D处理的62%和50%;XD和XDX处理的分蘖数分别是X处理的50%和47%。就开花株数而言,X处理显著高于其它处理(p<0.05);DXD和XDX处理的开花株数为0。因此,持续的淡水浇灌可能会促进互花米草的生物量积累,并且采取快速的克隆生长为主的繁殖策略;而在淡水和咸水交替的生境下,互花米草的生物量积累、无性和有性繁殖能力都会受到抑制。     

RECOLONIZATION OF SMALL DISTURBANCE PATCHES IN A NEW ENGLAND SALT MARSH

Availability of colonizers and edaphic conditions were tested in relation to rates of recolonization of open patches in salt marsh vegetation. The density of buried viable seeds was estimated by counting seedlings in undisturbed vegetation and germinating seeds in the laboratory. A low density of viable seeds (<50 per m²) found in these salt marsh soils indicated the absence of an important viable seed bank in this system. Rates of recolonization in natural open patches were monitored for three years. Vegetative expansion of Spartina alterniflora, at approximately 12 cm per year, accounted for most of the recolonization of open patches, although some colonization of annual Salicornia spp. occurred from seeds. Salinity and sulfide and ammonium concentrations were measured in pore water samples from depths of 2–7 cm and 10–15 cm of soil. Comparison of the concentrations from disturbed and undisturbed plots in the marsh did not show significant differences, indicating that none of the edaphic conditions measured would be more inhibitory to plant growth in the disturbed than the undisturbed plots. Therefore, the rate at which small open patches become recolonized is primarily controlled by proximity of Spartina alterniflora and its capacity for vegetative expansion.     

UPTAKE AND LOSSES OF HEAVY METALS IN SEWAGE SLUDGE BY A NEW ENGLAND SALT MARSH

As part of an investigation on the potential of salt marshes to act as natural waste treatment systems, we are studying the cycling of heavy metals in Great Sippewissett Marsh, Massachusetts. For the last 7 yr, varying doses of fertilizer containing sewage sludge have been added to experimental plots. Changes in metal levels in the sediment, grasses, and animals have been monitored. Marsh sediments retained 20-35% Cd, 20-50% Cr, 60-100% Cu, 55-100% Pb, 80-100% Fe, 55-60% Mn and 20-45% of the Zn added in the fertilizer. When compared with low marsh, high marsh areas retained a significantly greater fraction of all the added metals except Mn.     

Fe、Cu、Mn、Zn在互花米草(spartina alterniflora)初级生产中的动态研究

1989年3—10月对江苏滨海废黄河口互花米草初级生产的测定为总生物量(干重)净增3154.8gm~(-2)·a~(-1)。对盐沼中Fe、Cu、Mn、Zn的动态研究表明,Fe、Mn的年变化与互花米草的生物量变化较趋一致,7—8月份Fe、Mn的供应不足也许是米草生长的限制因子;9月的Zn峰可能与生殖生长有关;至于7月的Cu峰是否与强化呼吸有关,还值得探讨。对高生产力的互花米草盐沼资源应予以重视,本文提出了有关开发利用的构想。     

FLUX OF INORGANIC NUTRIENTS AND PARTICULATE CARBON BETWEEN A SPARTINA MARITIMA SALT MARSH AND THE SWARTKOPS ESTUARY,EASTERN CAPE

Summary

The flux of dissolved inorganic nutrients (NH₄-N, NO₂-N, NO₃-N, SRP) and suspended particulates (particulate organic carbon POC, and particulate inorganic carbon PIC) was measured across the mouth of a small creek draining a portion of the intertidal Spartina salt marsh in the Swartkops estuary. Direct measurements of constituent concentration, the volume of water flowing into and out of the creek basin at discrete time intervals, and tidal height were made over full spring tide cycles on a two-weekly basis during a 12 month study period. Results show that the marsh acts as a sink for NH₄-N, NO₂-N, and NO₃-N on an annual basis, but exports soluble reactive phosphate to the contiguous estuarine waters. The marsh also imports nominal amounts of suspended POC and PIC (<1.5 mm in size), but apparently exports larger detrital particles (>1.5 mm) on ebb tides to the estuary. It is concluded that the marsh retains and utilizes most of its own production and functions virtually as an independent ecosystem.     

互花米草幼苗在不同浓度NaCl溶液中的生长和溶质的积累

互花米草在NaCl营养液中能够大量积累Na~+和Cl~-,并对K~+、可溶性糖和游离脯氨酸的积累也有一定的促进作用,同时抑制了Ca~(2+)、Mg~(2+)和Pi的吸收。幼苗积累Na~+和Cl~-作为主要渗透剂。Na~+/K~+比值随着培养基NaCl浓度增大而提高。根部无机离子的总量明显高于地上部。NaCl明显降低幼苗地上部的渗透势,其变化随培养基渗透势的下降而降低。在NaCl营养液中培养的幼苗鲜重和含水置下降,但对于重影响不大,鲜重/干重比值随培养基NaCl浓度增大而降低。     

GERMINATION AND SEEDLING RESPONSE OF ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS POPULATIONS OF SPARTINA ALTERNIFLORA

Germination response to thermoperiod and seedling response to photoperiod-thermoperiod treatments and to uniform field conditions were compared for 12 populations of Spartina alterniflora Loisel. from along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Germination above 50 % was attained by seeds from all populations in 25–10, 30–15, and 35–20 C alternating diurnal thermoperiods following three months storage in estuarine water at 2–3 C. Except for Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Virginia, seedlings of populations from Ocracoke Island, North Carolina, and northward produced significantly more total biomass in the long- than in the short-day photoperiod in the 30–26 C thermoperiod. Seedling biomass of populations southward of Ocracoke Island, North Carolina, was not significantly affected by photoperiod in either the 18–14 or 30–26 C thermoperiods. Seedlings of all populations from Georgia and northward were significantly shorter and produced significantly more culms in the short- than in the long-day photoperiod in the 30–26 C thermoperiod. Seedlings from Mississippi and all populations from Virginia and northward had significantly lower shoot to root plus rhizome ratios under the short- than the long-day photoperiod in the 30–26 C thermoperiod. Flowering occurred only in populations from Ocracoke Island, North Carolina, northward in the 30–26 C thermoperiod. In a field study, flowering occurred in a north to south sequence and in all populations by the end of the second growing season. Controlled environment and field seedling studies indicated that southern populations flowered later, exhibited longer growing periods, and were less sensitive to photoperiod than northern populations. New England, Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Gulf coast populations differed in height, color, flowering time, length of growing period, and morphology through two growing seasons in the field study.     

WATER USE AND SALT BALANCE IN THREE SALT MARSH SUCCULENTS

Water-use characteristics and potential salt accumulation rates were studied in three halophytes, Salicornia virginica, Balis marítima and Borrichia frutescens, inhabiting a salinity gradient in the high marsh. Xylem pressure potential (ψ_ρ), leaf osmotic potential (ψ_π) and leaf relative water content were measured seasonally in the three species. Species growing on the high end of the salinity gradient developed more negative xylem pressure potentials compared to species growing at lower soil salinities. This trend was also observed for leaf osmotic potentials. Low mean leaf ψ_π (below –15 to –36 bars) and high ash contents (0.27–0.48 g NaCl/g DW) indicated salt accumulation in transpiring tissues. However, calculations of potential salt accumulation, based on rates of transpiration and substrate salinity, suggest that some mechanism of salt exclusion at the roots may be operating.     

STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF HARDWOOD SWAMPS IN THE NEW JERSEY PINE BARRENS: CONTRASTING PATTERNS IN TREES AND SHRUBS

The biomass, density, age structure, and dominance patterns of the tree and shrub populations in hardwood swamps of the New Jersey Pine Barrens are described and contrasted with each other. The total biomass of individual swamps ranges from 92,000 kg/ha to 194,000 kg/ha, depending on the age of the stand. These biomass values are similar to those reported for southern hardwood swamps. The Pine Barrens swamps are distinguished by very large populations of ericaceous and other shrubs, which range up to 13% of the total above-ground biomass. The tree populations, composed principally of Acer rubrum, Nyssa sylvatica and Magnolia virginiana, are even-aged; Acer is strongly dominating, with a minimum of 73% of the biomass, and species richness is associated with the availability of different microhabitats. The shrub populations, by contrast, are all-aged, with the dominance patterns among the species and the stand biomasses varying with the degree of flooding of the stand. Differences in size and growth rate among the shrub species parallel their evident response to the flooding gradient. The shrub stratum has lower species richness than the comparable southern swamps and floodplains, but ranges up to higher biomass values.     

ROOT AERENCHYMA DEVELOPMENT IN SPARTINA PATENS IN RESPONSE TO FLOODING

Root aerenchyma, developed in response to flooding, was measured as specific gravity in previously existing (old) and newly developed (new) roots of Spartina patens in a 25-day greenhouse experiment. Root specific gravity was related to porosity (fractional volume of aerenchyma): porosity = 1.026 – 0.969 × specific gravity, over a wide range of specific gravities (0.5 to 0.9). The specific gravity of flooded roots (new and old) decreased from 0.78 to 0.58 between day 5 and 25, while the specific gravity of old roots that remained drained did not change. After 5 days growth, newly produced roots were found to have less aerenchyma than their older counterparts, but after 25 days the specific gravity of new roots equaled that of old roots. In addition, flooding increased mortality of preexisting roots and inhibited growth of new roots.