种子散布位置对格氏栲幼苗根系形态及生长特征的影响

种子从母株掉落于地面萌发后,其根系在不同散布位置(凋落物上层、土壤表层和凋落物下层)的生长形态影响幼苗定居及建成,而目前对其根系形态及生长特征的了解并不充分,限制了对幼苗根系在不同散布下适应策略的理解。为此,以格氏栲(Castanopsis kawakamii)为研究对象,通过模拟种子在凋落物中位置,设置凋落物上层(种子下层铺垫2 cm和4 cm凋落物,U2和U4处理)、土壤表层与凋落物下层(种子上层覆盖0、2、4、6 cm和8 cm凋落物,CK、D2、D4、D6和D8处理)等3种散布,探讨不同散布位置对格氏栲幼苗根系9个生长指标的影响。结果表明：(1)种子散布位置对幼苗根干物质质量具有显著影响,D2处理达最大值。(2)D2处理的幼苗根长、根表面积、根尖数、分枝数和比根长高于其它处理;根系平均直径在D6处理达最大值。(3)相关分析表明根长、根表面积、根尖数、分枝数和比根长与根系平均直径呈显著负相关关系。(4)对根系9个生长指标提取主成分后聚类为4个类群,D2与D4处理各划分一类;U2与U4处理划分一类,其余三个处理划分一类。综上所述,凋落物浅层覆盖(D2处理)适宜格氏栲根系生长;凋落物...     

REALIZED GENE FLOW VIA POLLEN IN ARTIFICIAL POPULATIONS OF MUSK THISTLE,CARDUUS NUTANS L.

Realized gene flow via pollen was measured in four adjacent, artificial populations of musk thistle, Carduus nutans L. by observing the distribution of electrophoretic markers at two allozyme loci. Realized gene movement declined exponentially with distance. Dispersal distances of the marker alleles averaged 5.0 m. Estimates of effective neighborhood sizes based on the movement of these genetic markers ranged from 126 to 378 individuals. When measures of seed movement were included, estimates of effective population sizes range from 1,281 to 3,844 individuals. It is, therefore, unlikely that chance effects play a major role in shaping the genetic structure of well-established musk thistle populations.     

凋落物物理阻隔对格氏栲种子萌发及胚根生长的影响

为了探讨凋落物物理阻隔对格氏栲天然林自然更新状况的影响,通过模拟野外凋落物覆盖,设置格氏栲种子上层覆盖厚0 cm(CK)、2 cm(D2)、4 cm(D4)、6 cm(D6)、8 cm(D8)及种子下层铺垫厚2 cm(U2)、4 cm(U4)凋落物等7个处理,分析凋落物覆盖方式及厚度对格氏栲种子萌发及胚根生长的影响。结果表明:(1)凋落物覆盖方式及厚度对种子萌发进程存在显著影响。CK萌发持续时间最长,上层覆盖处理(D)次之,下层铺垫处理(U)的种子起始萌发时间显著滞后。(2)CK种子萌发率最高,其次D6处理发芽速度较快,发芽整齐;U处理较D处理的发芽率及发芽势均显著降低,且萌发抑制率显著增加。(3)D处理的种子胚根生长速度快,胚根长度大于CK;U处理的种子胚根生长速度呈先慢后快趋势。可见,凋落物是影响格氏栲种子萌发及胚根生长的重要因素,主要通过阻碍种子与土壤接触而抑制萌发,影响格氏栲林更新。     

Establishment and growth of seedlings of Eucalyptus obliqua: Interactive effects of litter,water, and pathogens

We studied how leaf litter, water and fungal pathogens affect the establishment, survivorship, and growth of Eucalyptus obliqua using glasshouse and field experiments. In a glasshouse experiment, the presence of leaf litter of E. obliqua increased the establishment of seedlings when the seeds were placed beneath the litter, but dense litter layers reduced seedling emergence when seeds were placed on top. Results from a complementary experiment suggest that the effect of litter may be mediated by the high humidity microenvironment it creates, which may enhance imbibition of unburied seeds. In another glasshouse experiment, litter in combination with excessive water applications reduced seedling emergence and increased seedling mortality, but the addition of fungicide reverted these effects. Litter with lower water application or fungicide added increased seedling emergence. In all cases higher biomass in seedlings growing in litter treatments was associated with earlier emergence. In two recently burnt sites, the density of seedlings of E. obliqua was positively correlated to the presence of litter. Experimental addition of litter in the field reduced soil temperature during the summer, and together with watering, increased soil water content, and the water potential of established seedlings. However, neither treatment had any positive effect on their growth or survivorship. On the contrary, litter addition reduced the height and number of leaves, probably as a result of increased herbivory. We conclude that in Mediterranean-type systems litter may produce various effects on seedling establishment depending on their developmental stage, and the season.     

Mycorrhizal diversity,seed germination and long‐term changes in population size across nine populations of the terrestrial orchid Neottia ovata

In plant species that rely on mycorrhizal symbioses for germination and seedling establishment, seedling recruitment and temporal changes in abundance can be expected to depend on fungal community composition and local environmental conditions. However, disentangling the precise factors that determine recruitment success in species that critically rely on mycorrhizal fungi represents a major challenge. In this study, we used seed germination experiments, 454 amplicon pyrosequencing and assessment of soil conditions to investigate the factors driving changes in local abundance in 28 populations of the orchid Neottia ovata. Comparison of population sizes measured in 2003 and 2013 showed that nearly 60% of the studied populations had declined in size (average growth rate across all populations: ?0.01). Investigation of the mycorrhizal fungi in both the roots and soil revealed a total of 68 species of putatively mycorrhizal fungi, 21 of which occurred exclusively in roots, 25 that occurred solely in soil and 22 that were observed in both the soil and roots. Seed germination was limited and significantly and positively related to soil moisture content and soil pH, but not to fungal community composition. Large populations or populations with high population growth rates showed significantly higher germination than small populations or populations declining in size, but no significant relationships were found between population size or growth and mycorrhizal diversity. Overall, these results indicate that temporal changes in abundance were related to the ability of seeds to germinate, but at the same time they provided limited evidence that variation in fungal communities played an important role in determining population dynamics.     

CONTRASTING GERMINATION AND SEEDLING GROWTH OF BETULA ALLEGHANIENSIS AND RHUS TYPHINA SUBJECTED TO VARIOUS AMOUNTS AND TYPES OF PLANT LITTER

Several characteristics of the environment, such as plant litter, may interact with species characteristics, such as seed size, to determine patterns of plant establishment and thereby influence abundance and spatial location of plants long after the factor has itself disappeared. To determine if litter might differentially affect seedling establishment of Betula alleghaniensis Britton and Rhus typhina L., two woody species with different sized seeds, we conducted two greenhouse experiments. We documented emergence, morphology, and growth patterns of seedlings covered by three amounts each of Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. leaves or Tsuga canadensis L. needles. All amounts of litter significantly reduced and delayed final Betula alleghaniensis seedling emergence, and the resultant seedlings had reduced root: shoot ratios, longer hypocotyls, and were less robust. Litter did not affect Rhus typhina emergence but did alter biomass allocation: stem, leaf, and root biomass of Rhus seedlings was reduced by greater amounts of litter, and by leaf litter relative to needle litter. We attribute the different responses of Betula and Rhus to differences in seed size (Betula mean seed size = 1.0 mg; Rhus mean seed size = 8.5 mg) and germination cues (Betula requires light, Rhus requires chemical or heat scarification), and suggest that differential response to litter may contribute to coexistence among these sympatric species.     

Germination and population structure of spear thistle Cirsium vulgare in relation to experimentally controlled sheep grazing

Summary The size and number of rosettes of Cirsium vulgare were censused in a 4 ha sheep grazing trial on lowland calcareous grassland in paddocks receiving controlled winter, spring and summer grazing treatments. Spring grazing significantly increased thistle rosette numbers, and there were always fewer rosettes in size classes 250mm–300 mm under the heavier grazing treatments. The emergence of seeds of Cirsium vulgare sown by hand into each of the grazing treatments was monitored and showed a positive effect of spring grazing. When the percent emergence of sown seeds was used as a covariate in the analysis of rosette numbers in the experimental paddocks, it was found to account for 77% of the variance in thistle numbers. It was concluded that the main effect of grazing on thistle rosette numbers is an indirect one exercised through the effects of grazing on germination conditions. Seeds of Cirsium vulgare were sown into artificial gaps at another grassland site, to determine the effect of gap-size upon seedling emergence. Germination was poor, but significantly more seedlings emerged in gaps 10–20 cm diameter, than in 5 cm gaps or in control plots without a gap. A computer simulation model was used to explore the relationship between gap density and thistle population dynamics. A threshold density of gaps was found to exist, below which thistle populations went extinct, and above which the thistle population grew geometrically. The degree of aggregation of dispersed seeds did not alter the threshold gap-density for plant extinction, but did affect the rate of increase of the thistle population when the threshold gap-density was exceeded. It is concluded that strategies for controlling Cirsium vulgare populations by grazing manangement will be most effective if aimed at reducing suitable sites for establishment in spring. The success of such attempts will depend upon the soil fertility of the site, and sudden outbreaks of Cirsium vulgare infestation can be expected if a sward gradually deteriorates through over-grazing.     

The interaction between propagule pressure,habitat suitability and density‐dependent reproduction in species invasion

Seedling recruitment limitations create a demographic bottleneck that largely determines the viability and structure of plant populations and communities, and pose a core restriction on the colonization of novel habitat. We use a shade‐tolerant, invasive grass, Microstegium vimineum, to examine the interplay between seed and establishment limitations – phenomena that together determine recruitment success but usually are investigated individually. We add increasing amounts of seed to microhabitats containing variable levels of leaf litter thickness – with reduced leaf litter simulating disturbance – to investigate whether reduced seed limitation overcomes the establishment limitation posed by litter cover. We do this across gradients in understory light, moisture and temperature, and quantify germination, survival, and then per capita adult biomass and reproduction in order to understand the implications for invasion across the landscape. We find that the combined effects of seed and establishment limitation influence recruitment; however, propagule pressure overwhelms the inhibitory effects of leaf litter thickness. Leaf litter reduces germination by 22–57% and seedling survival by 13–15% from that observed on bare soil. However, density‐dependent reproduction compensates as 1–3 plants can produce far more seeds (approx. 525) than are required for persistence. As such, just a few plants may establish in understory forest habitat and subsequently overwhelm establishment barriers with copious propagule production. These results, for a widespread, invasive plant, are consistent with the emerging perspective for native plants that seed and establishment limitation jointly influence recruitment. The ability for an exotic plant species to compensate for low population densities with high per capita seed production, that then overrides establishment limitations, makes its invasive potential daunting. Further work is required to test if this is a common mechanism underlying plant invasions.     

Reproductive strategy of an invasive thistle: effects of adults on seedling survival

Invasive species are known for their ability to form monocultures that exclude native species, yet intraspecific interactions among invasives have not been well studied. Cynara cardunculus (L.) is an invasive perennial thistle that establishes high-density populations in coastal California grasslands. We examined the natural distribution of C. cardunculus seedlings in an established population and found that nearly 100% of seedlings grew within 2 m of adults despite an expected distribution peak at 3 m from source plants based on measured dispersal distances. We then investigated the role of mature plants in seedling survival and establishment with regard to live vegetation, litter, and seedling distance by planting seedlings at increasing distances around adults and applying removal treatments to the focal adult rosettes. We applied control (no removal), adult rosette removal (live leaves), litter removal (dead leaves), and adult rosette plus litter removal (all aboveground plant material) treatments. Seedlings experienced a higher rate of survival, measured by senescence date, and establishment, measured by return rate the following year, with all adult rosette removal treatments. Inhibition by adult rosettes was reduced with distance to 60–80 cm from the rosette, and there was little effect of adult plants between 80 and 200 cm. These results suggest that adult rosettes may inhibit conspecific seedlings at very close distances but provide a favorable environment for seedlings within nearby interspaces. This pattern may contribute to the creation and maintenance of high-density populations in C. cardunculus. Land managers seeking to control this species may improve long-term effectiveness by expanding management efforts to include a 2 m radius around adult plants and treating within 5 months of seedling emergence to prevent recruitment rather than treating adults alone.     

INTER- AND INTRASPECIFIC VARIATION OF MOSSES IN TOLERANCE TO COPPER AND ZINC

Bryophytes are often viewed as slowly evolving with little genetic variation within and among populations. A study of heavy-metal tolerance was initiated to test the capacity of bryophytes to undergo genetic differentiation in response to natural selection. Tolerance of Funaria hygrometrica to copper and zinc was greater in populations that originated on soil with high concentrations of these metals. Protonemal growth was more inhibited by the metals than was germination, and copper was more toxic than zinc. Zinc and copper tolerances were correlated, but so were the zinc and copper concentrations of native substrates. The pattern of population differentiation for heavy-metal tolerance in this species is much like that of flowering plants. Five populations of Physcomitrium pyriforme, which does not occur on metal-contaminated soil, were all highly tolerant of zinc but extremely intolerant of copper. This species seems to have an inherent tolerance to the former. Significant variation in tolerance to copper and zinc occurred among populations, but tolerance did not correlate with metal contents in native substrates. This pattern differs from that of flowering plants. Normal populations of species that colonize contaminated sites tended to be more tolerant than populations of species that do not colonize such sites. The extensive population differentiation in Funaria hygrometrica augments the evidence from electrophoretic data that there is genetic variation among populations of mosses and liverworts.     

Microbial biomass C and N,and mineralizable-N,in litter and mineral soil under Pinus radiata on a coastal sand: Influence of stand age and harvest management

Microbial biomass C and N, and anaerobically mineralizable-N, were measured in the litter and mineral soil (0–10 cm and 10–20 cm depth) of Pinus radiata plantations in two trials on a nitrogen-deficient coastal sand. The trials comprised (a) stands of different age (1 to 33 years), with five of the seven stands studied being second rotation, and (b) a harvest-management trial, with stands established after different harvesting treatments of the first-rotation trees and understorey development controlled by manual weeding and chemical sprays. The harvest-management stands were sampled in the fifth year after the second-rotation establishment.In the stands of different age, the levels of microbial biomass C and N, and also mineralizable-N, in the litter and mineral soil showed no relationship with tree age and were similar to those in the oldest (33 years) stands of P. radiata. In the harvesting trial, five years after establishment of the second rotation, levels of microbial N and mineralizable-N in the litter and mineral soil were generally lowest where whole trees and the original forest floor had been removed; they were higher in associated plots in which the original forest floor had been removed but fertilizer N was regularly applied. No marked differences were then found between the other harvest treatments, viz. whole-tree harvest, stem-only harvest with slash remaining on site, and stem-only harvest plus extra added slash materials. In each trial, levels of microbial C and N and mineralizable-N were closely related to total C, and especially total N, in 0–10 cm depth mineral soil, but not generally in litter. Respiratory measurements strongly suggest that the microbial populations in mineral soil had a high metabolic activity.On an area basis in the harvest-management trial, total tree N and microbial N in the litter and mineral soil were lowest in stands where the original forest floor had been removed. In this particular treatment, microbial N in the litter plus mineral soil (0–20 cm depth) after five years of second-rotation growth comprised 7.3% of the total ecosystem N; values in the other treatments ranged between 5.6 and 6.0%.Our results emphasise the importance of slash and litter, and probably volunteer shrubs and herbaceous under-storey species, in conserving pools of potentially available N during the early stages of tree development.     

Effects of light,moisture, temperature,and litter on the regeneration of five tree species in the tropical montane wet forest of Puerto Rico

Field experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of light, moisture, temperature, and litter on the regeneration of two early-, one mid-, and two late-successional tropical tree species. High light and litter seem to be universally good cues for regeneration, increasing seed/seedling survival for all species except for Cecropia (an early-successional species) whose small seeds may not be able to penetrate the litter layer. In addition, the high temperature environment in both artificially shaded and nonshaded areas of a natural gap exhibits less seed loss, an increase in the percent and rate of germination, and an increase in seedling survival for Dacryodes (a late-successional species), than the lower temperature environment under an intact canopy. Low soil water is also a good cue for Dacryodes germination as it is for Prestoea and Cecropia. Finally, the lower temperature environment found under the forest canopy (compared to the natural gap) leads to less seed loss and more germination for Guarea (a mid-successional species). Our results suggest that a good patch for regeneration of many species in this forest, early- as well as late-successional species, would have high light and a litter layer that moderates temperature and moisture extremes. The substantial variation in suitability among regeneration filters and species could: (1) contribute to low establishment success, i.e., most dispersed propagules do not become trees, (2) make it difficult to group species into germination strategies, and (3) make it hard to generalize about a net effect of any specific environmental variable on establishment. We suggest that tropical disturbances should be viewed in terms of their impact on a variety of environmental cues, which may signal germination and impact subsequent growth and survival.     

GERMINATION AND SEEDLING RESPONSE OF ATLANTIC AND GULF COASTS POPULATIONS OF UNIOLA PANICULATA

Germination response following various periods of cold treatment and seedling response to temperature, daylength, and salinity were studied for several Atlantic and Gulf coasts populations of Uniola paniculata L. Results indicated that Atlantic coast Florida populations did not require cold treatment prior to germination at 95–65 F, but that populations from Virginia and North Carolina did. Gulf coast populations exhibited a germination response intermediate between those just mentioned. Seedling studies revealed that alternating diurnal thermoperiods with daytime temperatures of 80 F and above produced good vegetative growth in all populations with little preference for either short- or long-day conditions. Gulf coast populations produced the most biomass under all treatment conditions. Seedlings from a North Carolina and a Florida population indicated no difference in substrate salt tolerance. Salt tolerance was reduced in the higher temperature thermoperiod for both populations. Seedlings from these two populations produced more biomass in a salt spray treatment than in substrate salinity treatments.     

THE GENETIC STRUCTURE OF SPOROPHYTIC AND GAMETOPHYTIC POPULATIONS OF THE MOSS,FUNARIA HYGROMETRICA HEDW

Patterns of phenotypic and genotypic variability in two populations of the moss, Funaria hygrometrica, were investigated using measurements of gametophytic and sporophytic morphology, sporophytic reproductive output, spore germination, gametophytic growth rates and tolerances of copper, cadmium, and low nutrient conditions, and electrophoretically detectable enzyme variation. The two populations differed in all traits measured, but complete monomorphism within populations at 14 enzyme loci suggested that each represented a single clone. Variability in gametophytic growth rates and responses to different experimental media, however, occurred among haploid sib families (families of meiotic progeny derived from the same sporophyte) and among sibs within families within both populations, suggesting high levels of genetic variability. Low mean reproductive output and a high level of variability among sporophytes in a mine site population probably reflected heavy metal toxicity. Based on this study, in combination with previous work on F. hygrometrica (Shaw, 19906), somatic mutation and/or nongenetic effects appear to contribute significantly to phenotypic variability in natural populations.     

Seedbed and moisture availability determine safe sites for early Thuja occidentalis (Cupressaceae) regeneration

Regeneration of many late-successional tree species depends on specialized safe sites. The primary objective was to investigate the roles of seedbed and moisture retention as dimensions of safe sites for the early regeneration of drought-sensitive northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis). We hypothesized that rates of germination, survival, and growth of T. occidentalis are unlikely to differ among seedbed types under conditions of abundant water, but that differences are likely to emerge as water becomes more limited. In a 67-d greenhouse experiment, cedar seeds were sown on logs, leaf litter, and soil of cedar and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) canopy origin. Seedbeds were subjected to three water treatments. Among the water treatments, highest germination rates occurred within the high water treatment, although germination on cedar litter was comparable to that of the low water treatment. Higher germination and survival rates occurred on decayed logs than other natural seedbeds for medium (P = 0.001) and low (P < 0.0001) water treatments. Germination on birch logs occurred at higher rates than on cedar logs within the low water treatment (P = 0.04). Seedling growth for the medium water treatment was lower on leaf litter than any other type of seedbed (P < 0.01). Results generally demonstrated that the interplay between seedbed and moisture retention is a component of safe sites for T. occidentalis regeneration.     

森林凋落物对林地微生境的影响

评述了凋落物改变林地微生境的效应．凋落物减弱了林地地表及表层土壤(2mm厚)中的光照,改变了光谱特性,降低了PPFD和Pfr．缩小了日温差,提高了土壤湿度和肥力,增加了毒素和土壤动物的活动等,但凋落物改变生境的效应强度与凋落物组成、厚度、分解状态和周围生境(如植被、气候、地形和地貌等特性)等有关,在自然森林生态系统中,凋落物对林地微生境的效应因凋落物、植被、气候、地形和地貌的多样化变得更为复杂,而凋落物对植被天然更新的影响也因其对生境改变效应的复杂性而具有多样性和综合性,最后,对凋落物改变生境效应的复杂性和有关研究进行了展望。     

Seed characteristics and soil surface patch type interact to affect germination of semi-arid woodland species

Biological soil crusts are common in many arid and semi-arid regions and they can alter microenvironments which are likely to directly and indirectly influence vascular plant establishment. The effect of biological soil crusts on germination is also influenced by the biological characteristics of the seeds themselves but rarely have the effects of both crust type and seed morphology on germination been examined in the same study. In this study, seed of five semi-arid woodland species with contrasting seed morphology were sown on top of patch types that commonly occur in natural woodlands (foliose lichen, short-turf moss, tree leaf litter, disturbed crust) and their emergence was followed. Percent germination varied between patch types and, for the largest-seeded species (Maireana excavata), final germination was significantly lower on the biological soil crust and litter patch types because they strongly acted as a physical barrier to seed penetration into the soil. The remaining four species showed no significant differences in final percent germination with patch type because most seeds either completely or partially penetrated the surface layer. Germination time courses, however, showed that biological soil crusts delayed the timing of germination of these species. Hence, soil crusts might differentially affect the spatial patterning of species in semi-arid woodlands by their subtle influence on seedling emergence that is determined by differences in seed morphology and subsequent positioning within crusts.     

Effects of experimental and real land use on seedling recruitment of six fen species

Seedling emergence and early establishment of six fen species differing in seed mass and growth form were investigated under experimental land use with changed vegetation structure and under real land use in a calcareous fen. Seeds of all six species were sown in plots with different experimental land-use treatments: summer and autumn mowing with or without litter removal, trampling and abandonment. Additionally, emergence and survival of experimentally sown seeds was investigated under real land use on adjacent sites managed by mowing, grazing, intense trampling or abandonment.On abandoned plots and on plots without litter removal of the land-use experiment, emergence rates of all species were negatively affected either by high litter and moss cover or by tall canopy. No differences were found between autumn and summer mowing. Gap creation by experimental trampling did not increase germination rate. Under real land use, establishment of seedlings of most species was positively affected by litter cover and tall canopy. Trampling, in contrast, had a severe negative effect on seedling survival.The investigated species differed in their germination ability which was tested in the germination chamber and in their response to land use. Succisa pratensis with the highest seed mass germinated well in the chamber and in the field more or less regardless of land use. The low germination rate of Parnassia palustris in the germination chamber indicated a limitation of viable seeds. In the field, however, seedling emergence was additionally limited by microsite availability. Seeds of Serratula tinctoria and Primula farinosa germinated well in the germination chamber, but seedling recruitment in the field was hampered in the presence of a high litter or moss cover. Seeds of Tofieldia calyculata and Pinguicula vulgaris were strongly dependent on the availability of suitable microsites in the field. They hardly germinated under natural conditions, in spite of a high number of germinable seeds in the germination chamber.     

ECOLOGICAL GENETICS OF THE COLONIZING ABILITY OF ROSE CLOVER (TRIFOLIUM HIRTUM ALL.)

Thirteen populations sampled from among the oldest plantings of rose clover (Trifolium hirtum All.), introduced into the California range during the late 1940's, and 12 roadside populations established through natural colonization were compared for their genetic and demographic features. Roadside colonies showed a greater amount of reproductive effort in terms of a larger number of heads per plant and larger calyx, lower rate of seed carryover, higher and more stable plant density, lower seedling survivorship, and earlier flowering. The calyx was more hirsute in roadside collections and remained attached with the seed, a feature accounting for higher germination probabilities on the soil surface or in litter along the roadsides, in contrast to the range where grazing animals would often work the seed into the soil. Outcrossing rates are slightly higher in roadside colonies in which genetic polymorphisms at three marker loci represented as high levels of genetic variability as in the range populations. The colonizing success of rose clover seems to be largely determined by a few and rapid morphological changes and by the retention of some outbreeding and genetic variation. Such joint analyses of genetic and demographic features of colonizing species are needed to support various deductions about the characteristics of “ideal” weeds and colonizers.     

DORMANCY AND GERMINATION OF COMMON RAGWEED SEEDS IN THE FIELD

Common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia) seeds were stored under natural environmental conditions by placing them at three soil levels (surface, 5 cm, and 15 cm) in the field on November 1, 1972. Germination tests at 4-week intervals indicated that dormancy was broken by the end of January. Germination was initially greater at high temperatures, but this difference decreased with increasing time in the field. Secondary dormancy was evident in surface seeds by March 21 but not until April 18 at 5 cm and June 13 at 15 cm. Germination in the field was greatest at the surface but was observed at all soil levels by March 21. Seedling survival was 68% at the surface and 0% at 5 and 15 cm on June 13. Maximum and minimum soil temperatures were recorded at each soil level during the experiment and were correlated with the results. Greater germination and survival at the surface supports the evidence for ragweed's dependence on soil disturbance for germination, and the induction of secondary dormancy explains why ragweed does not constitute a dominant part of the vegetation when disturbance occurs after the soil warms to a critical point in the summer.