THE AERODYNAMICS OF POLLEN CAPTURE IN TWO SYMPATRIC EPHEDRA SPECIES

Wind-tunnel analyses of the behavior of airborne pollen around ovules of two Ephedra species (E. trifurca and E. nevadensis) indicate that at certain airflow speeds (0.5 m/sec and 1.0 m/sec) each species is capable of biasing pollination in favor of conspecific pollen. A computer procedure was designed to evaluate the physical basis for this aerodynamic discrimination. This procedure indicates that differences in size and density confer significantly different inertial properties to the two pollen species. Operating within the specific aerodynamic environments generated around ovules from each species, these differences are sufficient to account for the biases observed in the probability of pollination. Within natural populations, there exists significant variation in pollen size (and possibly in density). Accordingly, it is possible that, under certain ambient wind conditions, ovules from each species can select subsets of the entire airborne population of Ephedra pollen.     

ULTRASTRUCTURE OF BETA POLLEN. I. CYTOPLASMIC CONSTITUENTS

Cytoplasmic structure of developing pollen grains of Beta vulgaris L. was studied with the electron microscope. The following stages were investigated: tetrads, ely microspores, vacuolate microspores, and binucleate pollen grains. Two unique cytoplasmic features were encountered— the reticulum complex and cytoplasmic microtubules—both of which were present from the last meiotic stage to the binucleate pollen-grain stage. The reticulum complex is connected to the nuclear membrane and juxtaposed to the plasma membrane and may function in synthesis or movement of materials through the pollen cytoplasm.     

ULTRASTRUCTURAL INVESTIGATIONS ON THE TWO-NUCLEATE POLLEN GRAIN OF TILLANDSIA CAPUT-MEDUSAE MORR. (BROMELIACEAE)

The fine structure of the pollen grain of Tillandsia caput-medusae Morr. (Bromeliaceae) prior to germination has been studied. The development, after the first mitosis, is here schematized in three stages which are in accordance with the main steps described in angiosperms. The ultrastructural modifications occurring in the generative and vegetative cells are discussed in view of their different destiny. The results obtained are compared with the data known about tropical orchids and epiphyteic plants like Tillandsia. The following differences have been observed: a large vacuole in the vegetative cell; rapid thinning of the wall between the generative and vegetative cells; great quantity of ribosomes and rough endoplasmic reticulum surrounding the vacuoles in the generative cell. The above-listed ultrastructural features may have a meaning, considering the peculiar environmental conditions in which the epiphytism of Tillandsia is achieved.     

THE AURICULATE POLLEN GRAIN OF HYMENOCALLIS QUITOENSIS HERB. (AMARYLLIDACEAE) AND ITS SYSTEMATIC IMPLICATIONS

The pollen grain of Hymenocallis quitoensis Herb, is examined with scanning and transmission electron microscopy. The very large, monosulcate grain is characterized by a coarsely reticulate exine surface and solid, auriculate appendages at the equatorial facies. Surface morphology of the pollen grain of H. quitoensis is compared with other representative species of Hymenocallis and supports the inclusion of H. quitoensis within the genus. Meridional exine dimorphism in other species of Hymenocallis is interpreted as a reduction from the well-defined auriculae of H. quitoensis. Surface morphology of the pollen grain of Hymenocallis sects. Artema Traub and Elisena (Herb.) Traub exhibits divergence from that of sects. Hymenocallis and Ismene (Herb.) Traub. Phylogenetic and paleobotanical implications of the auriculate pollen grain are briefly discussed.     

A Model of Plant Hydraulics Under Non-equilibrium Conditions: I. STEMS

Oscillations in sap flux in two branches of a plant were foundto be non-synchronous but frequently phase-locked, even thoughthe branches had very different energy budgets. Time lags inthe transmission of oscillations along a stem were measured,and analysed in terms of an electrical transmission-line analogy.The equivalent ‘circuit elements’ in the stem wereidentified and their values calculated. These values were usedto derive the expected time lags of oscillations along a stem.Derived values agreed closely with those measured.     

Freezing in Conifer Xylem: I. PRESSURE CHANGES AND GROWTH VELOCITY OF ICE

To determine whether freezing causes wide-spread cavitationin the xylem of freezing trees, pressure and temperature weremeasured inside freezing conifer sapwood blocks. Pressure risesof up to 3.3 MPa were recorded and average radial growth velocitiesof ice were between 1.75 and 2.3 µm s^–l. These growthvelocities of ice are less than the minimum growth velocityfor bubble nucleation during freezing. To complement this experimental study finite difference modelsof freezing in a single tracheid and freezing in an idealizedtree stem were constructed. The single tracheid model predictspressure rises similar to those measured experimentally. Thismodel also predicts that 5% to 8% of water in a tracheid lumenmigrates out of the tracheid during freezing. The tree stemmodel predicts growth velocities of ice three times faster thanthe values measured experimentally. These results are compared with previous contradictory theoriesof freezing in conifers. Key words: Freezing, xylem     

THE POSSIBLE ROLE OF A FIBROUS BODY IN THE GENERATIVE CELL OF THE POLLEN GRAIN OF TILLANDSIA CAPUT-MEDUSAE MORR. (BROMELIACEAE)

The occurrence of a fibrous body in the generative cell of the pollen grain of Tillandsia caputmedusae Morr. (Bromeliaceae) is pointed out and its possible role is indicated.     

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE VASCULAR SYSTEM IN THE STEMS OF THE NYMPHAEACEAE. I. NYMPHAEA SUBGENERA CASTALIA AND HYDROCALLIS

The vascular system in the stems of Nymphaea odorata and N. mexicana subgenus Castalia, and N. blanda subgenus Hydrocallis consists of continuing axial stem bundles with eight being the usual number. The stem bundles are concentric and xylem maturation is mesarch. Xylem elements consist of tracheids with spirally or weakly reticulated secondary wall thickenings. The phloem is made up of companion cells and short sieve tube members with simple sieve plates that are nearly transverse. At the node each leaf is supplied with two lateral leaf traces and a median leaf trace. A root trace is also present and supplies a series of adventitious roots borne on the leaf base. Flowers and vegetative buds develop directly from the apical meristem and occupy leaf sites in a single genetic spiral. Each flower or vegetative bud is related to a leaf through specific spatial and vascular association. The related leaf is separated from the related flower by three members of the genetic spiral and occupies an adjacent orthostichy. Vascular tissue for the related flower arises from the inner surfaces of the four stem bundles supplying leaf traces to the related leaf and extends through the pith to the flower or vegetative bud via a peduncle fusion bundle. The vascular system organization in the investigated species of Castalia and Hydrocallis is not typically monocotyledonous or dicotyledonous, nor can it be considered transitional between them. The ontogeny of the vascular system is similar to typical dicotyledons and the investigated species of Nymphaea can, therefore, be considered to represent highly specialized and modified dicotyledons.     

ANTHOCYANINS OF DIMORPHOTHECA (COMPOSITAE). I. IDENTITY OF PIGMENTS IN FLOWERS,STEMS, AND CALLUS CULTURES

Anthocyanins isolated from ray flowers, disk florets, stem, and callus cultures of Dimorphotheca sinuata were identified and found to be cyanidin-3-glucoside and dephinidin-3-glucoside. The anthocyanins of the callus cultures were of the same identity as those in the whole plant, demonstrating that these glucosides are produced in the same manner under autophytic and heterophytic conditions. The use of this callus culture in experimental studies of anthocyanin production is discussed.     

STERILITY BARRIERS OF SOME ARTIFICIAL F1 ORCHID HYBRIDS: MALE STERILITY. I. MICROSPOROGENESIS AND POLLEN GERMINATION

Microsporogenesis, pollen germination and fertility of males gametes were studied in 24 artificial intergeneric and interspecific F₁ hybrids of orchids. Although parental species had the same chromosome number (2n = 40), microsporogenesis of the hybrids was irregular due to the lack of homology of the chromosomes of the parental species. This led to formation of tetrads of microspores without micronuclei, tetrads with 1–8 micronuclei, triads, dyads with and without micronuclei, and monads. Chromosomes numbers found in haploid microsporocytes ranged from 7 to 40; in micronuclei the chromosome number varied between 1 and 5. In terms of pollen germination, three situations were observed: 1) hybrids whose pollen grains did not germinate in the stigma; 2) hybrids in which the pollen tubes grew down in the style, but did not penetrate into the ovary; 3) hybrids in which the pollen tubes grew down normally through the ovary, reaching the ovules. When the pollen tubes did not penetrate the ovary no fruit was formed. Therefore germination tests carried out in vitro may not indicate pollen fertility, because pollen tube growth in the style of the flower may be insufficient to induce fruit formation or to accomplish fertilization.     

POLLEN MORPHOLOGY AND DETAILED STRUCTURE OF FAMILY COMPOSITAE,TRIBE CICHORIEAE. I. SUBTRIBE STEPHANOMERIINAE

A survey of pollen morphology in 20 species representing the 11 genera of the North American subtribe Stephanomeriinae by light, scanning electron, and transmission electron microscopy revealed 10 of the 11 genera to have echinate, tricolporate pollen grains, Lygodesmia being the only genus with echinolophate pollen. Sectioned exines of most of the species examined are similar, being composed of ektexine and endexine. The ektexine surface is composed of spines which typically have globose perforate bases. A cavus occurs as a separation between the basis (foot layer) and the columellae in all of the genera examined except Chaetadelpha. Pollen of the two species of Glyptopleura were found to be strikingly different in exomorphology. Pollen of the putatively self-fertile G. marginata has much shorter spines than the closely related G. setulosa. Atrichoseris, Anisocoma, Calycoseris, Glyptopleura, Pinaropappus, Prenanthella, and most species of Malacothrix have pollen which lack paraporal ridges. The remaining genera, Chaetadelpha, Lygodesmia, Rafinesquia, and Stephanomeria have well-developed ridges of fused spine bases around the apertures. Pollen characters, particularly those of the aperture region, have been found to be systematically useful in the subtribe, therefore acetolyzed material gives more useful information than untreated pollen.     

EVOLUTION OF DOMINANCE IN SPOROPHYTIC SELF-INCOMPATIBILITY SYSTEMS: I. GENETIC LOAD AND COEVOLUTION OF LEVELS OF DOMINANCE IN POLLEN AND PISTIL

Recent theoretical advances have suggested that various forms of balancing selection may promote the evolution of dominance through an increase of the proportion of heterozygote genotypes. We test whether dominance can evolve in the sporophytic self-incompatibility (SSI) system in plants. SSI prevents mating between individuals expressing identical SI phenotypes by recognition of pollen by pistils, which avoids selfing and inbreeding depression. SI phenotypes depend on a complex network of dominance relationships between alleles at the self-incompatibility locus ( S -locus). Empirical studies suggest that these relationships are not random, but the exact evolutionary processes shaping these relationships remain unclear. We investigate the expected patterns of dominance under the hypothesis that dominance is a direct target of natural selection. We follow the fate of a mutant allele at the S -locus whose dominance relationships are changed but whose specificity remains unaltered. We show that strict codominance is not evolutionarily stable in SSI, and that inbreeding depression due to deleterious mutations linked or unlinked to the S -locus exerts strong constraints on changes in relative levels of dominance in pollen and pistil. Our results provide a general adaptive explanation for most patterns of dominance relationships empirically observed in natural plant populations.     

DYNAMICS OF POLLEN TUBE GROWTH IN THE WILD RADISH,RAPHANUS RAPHANISTRUM (BRASSICACEAE). I. ORDER OF FERTILIZATION

Gametophytic competition and selection have important effects on patterns of mating in plant populations. However, the relative importance of prezygotic mechanisms is often unclear due to a paucity of observations on pollen tube growth in vivo. In this study, we present observations on pollen tube behavior in the gynoecium of wild radish. Significant variation in the order of fertilization of the linearly arranged ovules occurred within the radish ovary. This variation is evidence that prezygotic mechanisms of gamete selection operate to sort pollen tubes nonrandomly to different ovule positions in the ovary. We propose that the variation in fertilization patterns can be attributed to variance in pollen tube growth rates in the central septum of the radish gynoecium. The path of pollen tube growth and gynoecial structure deserve greater attention in future studies of gamete competition.     

INTERFERENCE THROUGH IMPROPER POLLEN TRANSFER IN MIXED STANDS OF IMPATIENS CAPENSIS AND I. PALLIDA (BALSAMINACEAE)

Mechanisms of interference through improper pollen transfer are described for sympatric populations of the simultaneously flowering annuals Impatiens capensis and I. pallida. Stigmas of both Impatiens species are receptive to conspecific pollen from the time of androecium disarticulation until after perianth drop. Pollen of I. pallida adheres to, and germinates on, the stigmas of I. capensis. The pollen tubes reach the ovules but do not fertilize them. In contrast, pollen of I. capensis adheres poorly to I. pallida stigmas and fails to germinate. Pollen mixtures of the two Impatiens species cause a much greater reduction in fruit set in I. capensis than in I. pallida. Despite the interference of I. pallida pollen, I. capensis persists in mixed populations with I. pallida by: 1) possessing stigmas receptive to pollen throughout the female phase; 2) having the ability to produce a full seed complement via one pollination event; and 3) possessing cleistogamous flowers to ensure sexual reproduction.     

THEORY AND MEASUREMENT OF VISUAL MECHANISMS : XI. ON FLICKER WITH SUBDIVIDED FIELDS

In Vol. 27, No. 5, May 20, 1944, page 403, in the eighth line from the bottom of the page, the comma after "intensity" should be a semicolon. On page 413, in the second formula from the bottom of the page, for See PDF for Equation read See PDF for Equation On the same page, formula 2 should read See PDF for Equation On page 414, line 3, at the end of the line add "or" to read "of the level of I or of F." On page 422, in the first line below the figure legend, for "illuminate" read "illuminated." On page 430, line 22, for "lighteb dars" read "lighted bars."