STABILITY OF ENHANCED YIELD AND METAL UPTAKE BY SUNFLOWER MUTANTS FOR IMPROVED PHYTOREMEDIATION

Plant biomass and metal shoot accumulation are key factors for efficient phytoextraction. In a previous study, chemical mutagenesis has been used to improve the phytoextraction potential of sunflowers. The main goal of the present study was to assess the stability of sunflower mutants with improved biomass and metal accumulation properties in the 3^rd and 4th generations. As compared to control plants, the best M₃ mutants showed the following improvement of metal extraction: Cd 3–5-fold, Zn 4–5-fold, and Pb 3–5-fold. The best M₄ sunflowers also showed enhanced metal extraction: Cd 3–4- fold, Zn 5–7-fold, Pb 6–8-fold and Cr 5–7-fold. The control sunflower inbred line IBL 04, grown directly on the field, accumulated metals in individual organs in the following decreasing order: Cd and Zn: leaves > stem > roots > flower > seeds; Cr: roots > flower > seeds > leaves > stem. The best sunflower mutants showed either higher metal accumulation in shoots or enhanced metal accumulation in roots, suggesting to improved phytoextraction or rhizofiltration efficiency, respectively.     

Trace elements bioavailability to winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown subsequent to high biomass plants in a greenhouse study

Multielement-contaminated agricultural land requires the adaptation of agronomic practices to meet legal requirements for safe biomass production. The incorporation of bioenergy plants with, at least, moderate phytoextraction capacity into crop rotations with cereals can affect trace elements (TE) phytoavailability and, simultaneously, constitute economic revenues for farmers outside the food or forage sector. Hence, in a crop rotation pot study sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), modified for high biomass and TE accumulation by chemical mutagenesis, was compared to winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) as pre-crop. On two agricultural soils with different TE loads, the crops´ potential for phytoextraction and for impacts on TE uptake by subsequent winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) was studied. The results showed that rape tolerated high-level mixed contamination with metals (Cd, Pb and Zn) and As more than sunflower. In both soils, labile metals concentration increased and soil acidity remained high following sunflower. Furthermore, enhanced grain As accumulation in subsequent wheat was observed. By contrast, soil acidity and Cd or Zn accumulation of subsequent wheat decreased following rape. In the short term, moderate phytoextraction was superimposed by nutrient use or rhizosphere effects of pre-crops, which should be carefully monitored when designing crop rotations for contaminated land.     

Feasibility of Labile Zn Phytoextraction Using Enhanced Tobacco and Sunflower: Results of Five- and One-Year Field-Scale Experiments in Switzerland

Phytoextraction with somaclonal variants of tobacco and sunflower mutant lines (non-GMs) with enhanced metal uptake and tolerance can be a sustainable alternative to conventional destructive decontamination methods, especially for stripping bioavailable zinc excess in topsoil. The overall results of a 5-year time series experiment at field scale in north-eastern Switzerland confirm that the labile Zn pool in soil can be lowered by 45–70%, whereas subplots without phytoextraction treatment maintained labile Zn concentrations. In 2011, the phytoextraction experiment site was enlarged by a factor of 3, and the labile 0.1 M NaNO₃ extractable Zn concentration in the soil was reduced up to 58% one period after harvest. A Mass Balance Analysis confirmed soil Zn decontamination in line with plant Zn uptake. The plants partially take Zn from the non-labile pool of the total. The sustainability of Zn phytoextraction in subplots that no longer exceed the Swiss trigger value is now assessed over time. In contrary to the phytoextraction of total soil Zn which needs a long cleaning up time, the bioavailable Zn stripping is feasible within a few years period.     

Screening of sunflower cultivars for metal phytoextraction in a contaminated field prior to mutagenesis

Sunflower can be used for the remediation of metal-contaminated soils. Its high biomass production makes this plant species interestingfor phytoextraction and using sunflower oil for a technical purpose may improve the economic balance of phytoremediation. The aim of the present field study was to screen 15 commercial cultivars of Helianthus annuus L. grown on metal-contaminated soil, to find out the variety with the highest metal extraction, which can be further improved by mutation or in vitro breeding procedures. Two different fertilizers (ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate) were also used to enhance the bioavailability of metals in soil Highly significant differences were observed within tested varieties for metal accumulation and extraction efficiency. Furthermore, ammonium nitrate increased cadmium extraction, whereas ammonium sulphate enhanced zinc and lead uptake in most tested cultivars. In this field-based sunflower screening, we found enhanced cumulative Cd, Zn, and Pb extraction efficiency by a factor 4.4 for Salut cultivar. We therefore emphasize that prior to any classical breeding or genetic engineering enhancing metal uptake potential, a careful screening of various genotypes should be done to select the cultivar with the naturally highest metal uptake and to start the genetic improvement with the best available plant material.     

Applying a solute transfer model to phytoextraction: Zinc acquisition by Thlaspi caerulescens

Phytoextraction is the removal of metals from contaminated soils into harvested plant tissues. The rate of phytoextraction is governed by both soil and plant characteristics. Most effort has focused on identifying appropriate plants for phytoextraction, but the benefits from this effort will be marginal unless the metals are in phytoavailable forms in the rhizosphere. The concentration of a metal in the rhizosphere can be estimated using solute transfer models that incorporate: the metal concentration in the bulk soil solution, the buffer power of the soil, diffusion coefficient for the metal, water movement, root size and morphology, and the rate of entry of metal into the roots. Here a solute transfer model is developed to predict the concentration of Zn in the rhizosphere solution ([Zn]_ext) of Thlaspi caerulescens, a hyperaccumulator species that could be exploited for Zn phytoextraction. The model predicts that Zn accumulation by T. caerulescens is sub-optimal when the Zn concentration in the bulk soil solution is <27 M. Such a high [Zn]_ext is rare in contaminated agricultural soils, but is possible in the metalliferous substrates where T. caerulescens is endemic. Sensitivity analyses indicate that Zn diffusion is more important than transpiration-driven mass flow for Zn delivery to the root, implying that management of soil physical and hydrological properties will improve phytoextraction. Sensitivity analyses also imply that strategies to enhance the Zn absorption power of the root will not necessarily be successful for enhancing phytoextraction per se. Thus, research into enhancing Zn availability and mobility in soil will be as important as understanding and manipulating Zn uptake by plants. In general, such models can be used to identify constraints to efficient phytoextraction (whether plant or soil) and to determine whether commercial phytoextraction is feasible.     

改良剂对酸性土壤上伴矿景天铝毒缓解作用及镉锌吸收性的影响

为探究不同改良剂对酸性土壤铝(Al)胁迫条件下镉(Cd)锌(Zn)超积累植物伴矿景天Sedum plumbizincicola生长以及镉和锌吸取修复效率的影响,分别添加不同种类改良剂(钙镁磷肥(CMP)、MgCO3、KH2PO4)和不同浓度CMP进行温室盆栽试验。结果表明,CMP能够一定程度上提高土壤pH值并降低土壤交换性Al的浓度,MgCO3能够显著提高土壤pH值和降低土壤交换性Al的浓度,KH2PO4能够降低土壤中交换性Al浓度但未改变土壤pH值。施用适量的CMP(9.39 mg/kg)能够提高伴矿景天生物量和Cd、Zn吸取修复效率,用量过高会抑制伴矿景天生长和Cd、Zn修复效率;施用MgCO3可增大伴矿景天生物量和Cd、Zn修复效率,施用KH2PO4反而抑制了伴矿景天生长。酸性土壤上施用适量的CMP和MgCO3能够缓解伴矿景天的铝毒作用,维持较高的重金属吸收效率。     

How does plant population density affect the biomass of Ravenna grass?

Ravenna grass, Tripidium ravennae (L.) H. Scholz, is known to produce an abundance of biomass, but how plant density affects its biomass potential remains unknown. The objectives were to determine the effects of plant density on biomass yield; plant growth traits; biomass?carbon, nitrogen, and ash concentrations; heating value; nitrogen removal; and sucrose concentration in leaves and culms. The treatments consisted of five plant densities (1,250; 2,500; 5,000; 10,000; and 20,000 plants per hectare) in a randomized complete block design with four blocks. Plots were nonirrigated, unfertilized, and harvested once during the dormant season each year. Data were collected from 2015?2019. Dependent variables that varied with plant population density (p < .05) were biomass yield, number of reproductive culms per plant, reproductive culm diameter, reproductive culm sucrose concentration, and nitrogen removal with biomass. Biomass yield ranged from 5.6 to 16.3 Mg/ha for plant densities of 1,250–20,000 plants per hectare, respectively. Combined over years, nonlinear regression of the data showed the equation for biomass yield to plateau at 16.2 Mg/ha at a plant density of 10,640 plants per hectare. As plant density increased, the number of reproductive culms per plant, culm diameter, and culm sucrose concentration significantly decreased. At 1,250 plants per hectare, the number of reproductive culms per plant, culm diameter, and culm sucrose averaged 70, 10.2 mm, and 63.2 g/kg, respectively. Nitrogen removed with biomass significantly increased as biomass yield increased with plant density. At a density of 10,000 and 20,000 plants per hectare, the amount of nitrogen removed annually in the harvested biomass averaged 88 kg/ha. The data suggest that 10,000 plants per hectare would produce the greatest annual biomass yields; however, research is needed to determine the nutrient requirement for Ravenna grass to sustain biomass production at that density.     

两种农业种植模式对重金属土壤的修复潜力

植物修复农田土壤重金属污染需要经历一个长期的过程,而大部分用来修复的植物都不具备利用价值,不能给当地农民带来经济收入。因此,一些农作物由于其较大的生物量和一定的经济价值,在植物修复土壤重金属污染的应用中受到广泛关注。是在重金属(Cu、Zn、Pb、Cd、As、Hg)复合污染的郴州矿区废弃农田种植油菜、玉米和油葵,研究油菜-玉米和油-油葵两种种植模式对土壤重金属污染的修复潜力。实验结果表明:三种作物在复合污染土壤中对重金属都表现出一定的耐性及吸收积累能力。向日葵的根和叶中重金属Cd、Cu的含量都很高,其中Cd在向日葵的各个部位的富集系数(BCF)及Cu在向日葵的根和叶的富集系数(BCF)都大于1。两种轮作模式对作物的产量没有明显的影响,收获得到的干物质量都很高,每年每公顷分别为油菜16.6t、玉米25.29t、油葵22.5t。两种种植模式都可以对土壤中的重金属进行有效的提取,油菜-油葵种植模式下提取重金属Cu、Pb、Cd、As的量较高,分别为:Cu 2408g hm~(-2)a~(-1),Pb 2027g hm~(-2)a~(-1),Cd 658.5g hm~(-2)a~(-1),As 250g hm~(-2)a~(-1),油菜-玉米模式下Zn和Hg的提取量较高,分别为Zn 4987g hm~(-2)a~(-1)和Hg 7.92g hm~(-2)a~(-1);对于多种重金属复合污染的土壤来说,油菜-油葵的种植模式要优于油菜-玉米的种植模式。总的来说,利用3种作物两两轮作的种植模式,在不影响作物产量的前提下大大的提高了作物对重金属的提取总量。3种作物在收获以后又可以用做工业原料,这就使得当地农民充分利用矿区废弃农田修复污染的同时又能从中获得一定经济效益。     

Response of Thlaspi caerulescens to nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur fertilisation

The main limiting factor for cleaning-up contaminated soils with hyperaccumulator plants is the low production of aerial biomass and the number of successive crops needed to reach the objective of remediation. The aim of this study was to contribute to the determination of a fertilisation strategy to optimise soil metal phytoextraction by Thlaspi caerulescens. A pot experiment was conducted on an agricultural soil and on a contaminated soil from the vicinity of a former Pb/Zn smelter. The nitrogen (N) treatment consisted of 4 levels (0, 11, 21.5 and 31 mg N kg(-1) dry soil (DS)) added as NH4NO3. The highest N treatment was combined with 4 levels of phosphorus (P) (0, 20, 40 and 80 mg P kg(-1) DS as KH2PO4) and sulfur (S) additions (0, 10, 20 and 30 mg S kg(-1) DS as MgSO4). The highest N fertilisation contributed significantly to enhance biomass production of T. caerulescens and to decrease the concentration of Cd and Zn in the biomass. At constant N addition, P supply did not affect metal extraction by T. caerulescens but negatively affected plant health. Sulfur supply slightly increased phytoextraction of Cd. Our results show that N and S fertilisation might interact but further investigations on the effect of such interaction on Cd extraction efficiency are needed.     

Metal accumulation and response of antioxidant enzymes in seedlings and adult sunflower mutants with improved metal removal traits on a metal-contaminated soil

Sunflower mutant lines with an enhanced tolerance and metal accumulation capacity obtained by mutation breeding have been proposed for Zn, Cd and Cu removal from metal-contaminated soils in previous studies. However, soils contaminated with trace elements induce various biochemical alterations in plants leading to oxidative stress. There is a lack of knowledge concerning the metal accumulation and antioxidant responses during the growth and development of sunflowers. This study, therefore, aimed to characterise metal accumulation and possible metal detoxification mechanisms in young seedlings and adult sunflowers. Beside the inbred line, two mutant lines with an improved growth and enhanced metal uptake capacity on a metal contaminated soil were investigated in more detail.Sunflowers cultivated on a metal-contaminated soil in the greenhouse showed a decrease in shoot biomass and chlorophyll concentration in two different developmental stages. Adult sunflowers showed a lower sensitivity to metal toxicity than young seedlings, whereas mutant lines were more tolerant to metal stress than the control. Mutant lines also produced a higher amount of carotenoids on a metal-contaminated soil than on the control soil, indicating a possible protective mechanism of sunflower mutants against oxidative stress caused by Cd and excess Zn.Heavy metals primarily increased the activity of antioxidant enzymes involved in the ascorbate–glutathione cycle in sunflower leaves. Activity of dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) and glutathione reductase (GR) was strongly increased in young seedlings exposed to heavy metals. The enzyme activities were even more pronounced in mutant lines. A significantly increased ascorbate peroxidase (APOX) activity in adult sunflowers exposed to heavy metals indicated an elevated use of ascorbate after a longer exposure to metal stress.An increased antioxidant level corresponded to a high Cd and Zn accumulation in young and adult sunflowers. Metal distribution, zinc translocation in particular, from the root into the shoot tissue obviously increased during sunflower growth and ripening. Altogether, these results suggest that sunflower plants, primarily the mutant lines, possess an efficient defence mechanism against oxidative stress caused by metal toxicity. A good tolerance of sunflowers toward heavy metals coupled with an increased metal accumulation capacity might contribute to an efficient removal of heavy metals from a polluted area.     

The potential of Thlaspi caerulescens for phytoremediation of contaminated soils

Uptake of Cd, Zn, Pb and Mn by the hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens was studied by pot trials in plant growth units and in populations of wild plants growing over Pb/Zn base-metal mine wastes at Les Malines in the south of France. The pot trials utilised metal-contaminated soils from Auby in the Lille area. Zinc and Cd concentrations in wild plants averaged 1.16% and 0.16% (dry weight) respectively. The unfertilised biomass of the plants was 2.6 t/ha. A single fertilised crop with the above metal content could remove 60 kg of Zn and 8.4 kg Cd per hectare. Experiments with pot-grown and wild plants showed that metal concentrations (dry weight basis) were up to 1% Zn (4% Zn in the soil) and just over 0.1% Cd (0.02% Cd in the soil). The metal content of the plants was correlated strongly with the plant-available fraction in the soils as measured by extraction with ammonium acetate and was inversely correlated with pH. Bioaccumulation coefficients (plant/soil metal concentration quotients) were in general higher for Cd than for Zn except at low metal concentrations in the soil. There was a tendency for these coefficients to increase with decreasing metal concentrations in the soil. It is proposed that phytoremediation using Thlaspi caerulescens would be entirely feasible for low levels of Cd where only a single crop would be needed to halve a Cd content of 10 g/g in the soil. It will never be possible to remediate elevated Zn concentrations within an economic time frame (<10 yr) because of the lower bioaccumulation coefficient for this element coupled with the much higher Zn content of the soils.     

Phytoextraction of metals and metalloids from contaminated soils

The removal of inorganic contaminants by plants is termed phytoextraction. Recent studies have looked at the feasibility of phytoextraction, and demonstrate that both good biomass yields and metal hyperaccumulation are required to make the process efficient. Adding chelating agents to soil to increase the bioavailability of contaminants can sometimes induce hyperaccumulation in normal plants, but may produce undesirable environmental risks. Thus, it is necessary to investigate the mechanisms responsible for hyperaccumulation, using natural hyperaccumulators as model plant species. Recent advances have been made in understanding the mechanisms responsible for hyperaccumulation of Zn, Cd, Ni and As by plants. Attempts to engineer metal tolerance and accumulation have so far been limited to Hg, As and Cd, and although promising results have been obtained they may be some way from practical application. More fundamental understanding of the traits and mechanisms involved in hyperaccumulation are needed so that phytoextraction can be optimised.     

Effects and limitations of elemental sulphur applications for enhanced phytoextraction

The application of elemental sulphur (S) to heavy metal contaminated soils is a strategy to increase metal extraction by plants. Here, we examined to which degree the efficiency of phytoextraction could be enhanced by increasing the S application rate on afield where S had already been applied for 6 years. For this purpose, the field experiment was continued for another two years doubling the S application rate on half of the S treatment plots, while continuing application at the previous rate on the other half. Doubling the application rate significantly accelerated the dissolution of calcite and the decrease in soil pH and also increased cadmium (Cd) and zinc (Zn) uptake by sunflower and tobacco. But even in a best-case-scenario remediation of the site would still take more than a century. The results indicate that we reached the maximum potential of S application to enhance metal phytoextraction on the study site. Further decrease in pH by additional S applications would bear an excessive risk of decreasing yields and increasing metal leaching out of the root zone.     

Hyperaccumulation of metals by Thlaspi caerulescens as affected by root development and Cd-Zn/Ca-Mg interactions

The aim of this work was to study, in a rhizobox experiment, the phytoextraction of metals by the hyperaccumulator plant Thlaspi caerulescens in relation to the heterogeneity of metal pollution. Six treatments were designed with soils containing various levels of metals. Homogeneous soils and inclusions of soils in other soil matrices were prepared in order to vary metal concentration and localization. Growth parameters of the plant (rosette diameter and shoot biomass) and localization of roots and shoot uptake of Zn, Cd, Ca, and Mg were determined after 10 weeks of growth. The plants grown on the polluted industrial soils provided a larger biomass and had lower mortality rates than those grown on the agricultural soil. Moreover, these plants accumulated more Zn and Cd (up to 17,516 and 375 mg kg(-1) DM, respectively) than plants grown on the agricultural soil (up to 7300 mg Zn kg(-1) and 83 mg Cd kg(-1) DM). The roots preferentially explored metal-contaminated areas. The exploration of polluted soil inclusions by the roots was associated with a higher extraction of metals. Zinc and Cd in the shoots of Thlaspi caerulescens were negatively correlated with Ca and Mg concentrations; however, the soil supply for these two elements was identical. This suggests that there is competition for the uptake of these elements and that Zn is preferentially accumulated.     

Phytoremediation of Metal Contaminated Soil Using Willow: Exploiting Plant-Associated Bacteria to Improve Biomass Production and Metal Uptake

Short rotation coppice (SRC) of willow and poplar is proposed for economic valorization and concurrently as remediation strategy for metal contaminated land in northeast-Belgium. However, metal phytoextraction appears insufficient to effectuate rapid reduction of soil metal contents. To increase both biomass production and metal accumulation of SRC, two strategies are proposed: (i) in situ selection of the best performing clones and (ii) bioaugmentation of these clones with beneficial plant-associated bacteria. Based on field data, two experimental willow clones, a Salix viminalis and a Salix alba x alba clone, were selected. Compared to the best performing commercial clones, considerable increases in stem metal extraction were achieved (up to 74% for Cd and 91% for Zn). From the selected clones, plant-associated bacteria were isolated and identified. All strains were subsequently screened for their plant growth-promoting and metal uptake enhancing traits. Five strains were selected for a greenhouse inoculation experiment with the selected clones planted in Cd-Zn-Pb contaminated soil. Extraction potential tended to increase after inoculation of S. viminalis plants with a Rahnella sp. strain due to a significantly increased twig biomass. However, although bacterial strains showing beneficial traits in vitro were used for inoculation, increments in extraction potential were not always observed.     

Growth and mineral element composition in two ecotypes of Thlaspi caerulescens on Cd contaminated soil

The heavy metal hyperaccumulator Thlaspi caerulescens occurs both on heavy metal polluted soils (metallicolous ecotype MET) and on soils with normal heavy metal content (non-metallicolous ecotype: NMET). In order to assess the extent and structure of variation in growth, shoot accumulation of Cd, Zn and mineral element (Ca, Mg, K, Fe), a MET ecotype from Belgium and a NMET ecotype from Luxembourg were studied. Seven maternal families from two populations of each ecotype were grown on both Cd and Zn contaminated soil. Although both ecotypes presented a similar heavy metal tolerance in the experimental conditions tested, they differed in several points. The MET populations had markedly higher biomass and higher root:shoot ratio compared to NMET populations. The Zn, and at lesser extent, the Cd hyperaccumulation capacity tended to be higher in the NMET populations. The same trend was observed for the foliar concentrations of Mg, Ca and Fe with NMET populations having higher concentrations compared to MET ones. Cd and Zn concentrations were negatively correlated with the biomass of both ecotype. However, the negative correlation between the Zn and biomass was much lower in MET ecotype suggesting a tighter control of internal Zn concentration in this ecotype. Finally, although the Cd phytoextraction capacity was similar in both ecotype, a higher Zn phytoextraction capacity was detected in NMET ecotype when these plants grow on moderate Cd and Zn concentrations.     

Uptake and distribution of zinc,cadmium, lead and copper in Brassica napus var. oleífera and Helianthus annus grown in contaminated soils

Brassica napus var. oleifera and Helianthus annus were grown in artificially contaminated soils. Accumulation and translocation of the environmental pollutants zinc, cadmium, lead, and copper, was evaluated in different portions of the plants at two harvesting times. The distribution into the plants of these metal ions, as well as their capacity for contaminant phytoextraction and accumulation was assessed. For this purpose, an analytical method utilizing focused ultrasound employed for extraction and stripping voltammetry for measurement has been optimized and validated for the simultaneous measurement of Zn, Cd, Pb, and Cu in plant extracts.     

Using hyperaccumulator plants to phytoextract soil Ni and Cd

Two strategies of phytoextraction have been shown to have promise for practical soil remediation: domestication of natural hyperaccumulators and bioengineering plants with the genes that allow natural hyperaccumulators to achieve useful phytoextraction. Because different elements have different value, some can be phytomined for profit and others can be phytoremediated at lower cost than soil removal and replacement. Ni phytoextraction from contaminated or mineralized soils offers economic return greater than producing most crops, especially when considering the low fertility or phytotoxicity of Ni rich soils. Only soils that require remediation based on risk assessment will comprise the market for phytoremediation. Improved risk assessment has indicated that most Zn + Cd contaminated soils will not require Cd phytoextraction because the Zn limits practical risk from soil Cd. But rice and tobacco, and foods grown on soils with Cd contamination without corresponding 100-fold greater Zn contamination, allow Cd to readily enter food plants and diets. Clear evidence of human renal tubular dysfunction from soil Cd has only been obtained for subsistence rice farm families in Asia. Because of historic metal mining and smelting, Zn + Cd contaminated rice soils have been found in Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam and Thailand. Phytoextraction using southern France populations of Thlaspi caerulescens appears to be the only practical method to alleviate Cd risk without soil removal and replacement. The southern France plants accumulate 10-20-fold higher Cd in shoots than most T. caerulescens populations such as those from Belgium and the UK. Addition of fertilizers to maximize yield does not reduce Cd concentration in shoots; and soil management promotes annual Cd removal. The value of Cd in the plants is low, so the remediation service must pay the costs of Cd phytoextraction plus profits to the parties who conduct phytoextraction. Some other plants have been studied for Cd phytoextraction, but annual removals are much lower than the best T. caerulescens. Improved cultivars with higher yields and retaining this remarkable Cd phytoextraction potential are being bred using normal plant breeding techniques.     

Limitations for phytoextraction management on metal-polluted soils with poplar short rotation coppice—evidence from a 6-year field trial

Poplar clones were studied for their phytoextraction capacity in the second growth cycle (6-year growth) on a site in the Belgian Campine region, which is contaminated with Cd and Zn via historic atmospheric deposition of nearby zinc smelter activities. The field trial revealed regrowth problems for some clones that could not be predicted in the first growth cycle. Four allometric relations were assessed for their capacity to predict biomass yield in the second growth cycle. A power function based on the shoot diameter best estimates the biomass production of poplar with R² values between 0.94 and 0.98. The woody biomass yield ranged from 2.1 to 4.8 ton woody Dry Mass (DM) ha^?1 y^?1. The primary goal was to reduce soil concentrations of metals caused by phytoextraction. Nevertheless, increased metal concentrations were determined in the topsoil. This increase can partially be explained by the input of metals from deeper soil layers in the top soil through litterfall. The phytoextraction option with poplar short rotation coppice in this setup did not lead to the intended soil remediation in a reasonable time span. Therefore, harvest of the leaf biomass is put forward as a crucial part of the strategy for soil remediation through Cd/Zn phytoextraction.     

The chelating effect of citric acid,oxalic acid,amino acids and Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria on phytoremediation of Cu,Zn, and Cr from soil using Suaeda vera

Phytoextraction is a green technique for the removal of soil contaminants by plants uptake with the subsequent elimination of the generated biomass. The halophytic plant Suaeda vera Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel. is an native Mediterranean species able to tolerate and accumulate salts and heavy metals in their tissues. The objective of this study was to explore the potential use of S. vera for soil metal phytoextraction and to assess the impact of different chelating agents such as natural organic acids (oxalic acid [OA], citric acid [CA]), amino acids (AA) and Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria (PFB) on the metal uptake and translocation. After 12 months, the highest accumulation of Cu was observed in the root/stem of PFB plots (17.62/8.19 mg/kg), in the root/stem of CA plots for Zn (31.16/23.52 mg/kg) and in the root of OA plots for Cr (10.53 mg/kg). The highest accumulation of metals occurred in the roots (27.33–50.76 mg/kg). Zn was the metal that accumulated at the highest rates in most cases. The phytoextraction percentages were higher for Cu and Zn (～2%) with respect to Cr (～1%). The percentages of metal removal from soil indicate the need to monitor soil properties, to recognize the influence of each treatment and to increase the concentration of bioavailable metals by the use of agricultural management practices aimed at promoting plant growth.