Factors affecting polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and electroblotting of high-molecular-weight myofibrillar proteins myofibrillar proteins

Electrophoresis of the high-molecular-mass proteins (>500 kDa) of muscle myofibrils is difficult using conventional procedures. The mobility of these proteins was influenced by the heating time in sample buffer, the use of 2-mercaptoethanol in the upper reservoir buffer, and the pH of the resolving gel in a stacking sodium dodecyl sulfate gel system. Heating samples for 4 min (versus shorter times), addition of 2-mercaptoethanol to the upper reservoir buffer, and reducing the pH of the resolving gel to 8.6 all enhanced the mobility and resolution of the high-molecular-weight proteins on polyacrylamide gels. The sulfhydryl reducing agents commonly used in protein sample buffers (2-mercaptoethanol and dithiothreitol) were found to migrate at the electrophoresic dye front. Inclusion of 10 mm 2-mercaptoethanol in the upper reservoir buffer or blocking free sulfhydryl groups with N-ethylmaleimide prevented intermolecular disulfide bond formation during electrophoresis. The addition of 10 mm 2-mercaptoethanol to the buffer used for electroblotting also improved efficiency of protein transfer to nitrocellulose.     

Models of protein modification in Tris-glycine and neutral pH Bis-Tris gels during electrophoresis: effect of gel pH

The pH of conventional Tris-glycine SDS-PAGE gels during a run is determined to be 9.5, in contrast to Bis-Tris-Mes gels where the pH is 7.2. Concentrations of free acrylamide are determined to be less than 10mM in commercial gels of both types, and it is found that of the major components in these gels, only glycine and protein amine or sulfhydryl functions are likely to react with residual acrylamide during the time frame of typical separations. The addition of acrylamide to sulfhydryl groups on proteins is modeled using glutathione and cysteine at acrylamide concentrations found in the commercial gels. Rate constants are determined for these reactions as well as for reaction with glycine at the pH that proteins will encounter in these gel types. The half-life for glutathione sulfhydryl at 10mM acrylamide and pH 7.2 is more than 4h at room temperature. Rates are significantly lower in Bis-Tris-Mes gels than in Tris-glycine gels, reducing the risk of adventitious protein modification. Commercial Bis-Tris-Mes gels provide a sample reduction buffer at pH 8.5 versus the conventional pH 6.8 of Tris-glycine gels. It is shown that significantly less protein degradation occurs during sample preparation at the higher pH used with Bis-Tris gels.     

Elimination of non-specific binding in western blots from non-reducing gels

The reaction of some antibodies with Western blots of protein shows strong non-specific binding especially at a region that corresponds to about 70-90 kDa. This binding is independent of protein concentration. Further analysis indicated that the factor responsible for the non-specific binding is 2-mercaptoethanol in the gel sample buffer. Gel electrophoresis of total tissue homogenates in the absence of this reducing agent resulted in dramatic elimination of the non-specific background binding without affecting the mobility of the two proteins we studied.     

A dot-blot assay for quantitation of nanogram amounts of protein in the presence of carrier ampholytes and other possibly interfering substances

A method for protein determination in one- and two-dimensional electrophoresis sample buffer is presented. Accurate quantitation of protein in two-dimensional electrophoresis sample buffer (9.5 M urea, 2% Nonidet P-40, 2% carrier ampholytes, and 5% 2-mercaptoethanol) required removal of carrier ampholytes prior to the assay. This was made possible by taking advantage of the mutual solubility/insolubility of carrier ampholytes/proteins in saturated ammonium sulfate solution. In addition, improvement of protein determination in denaturing electrophoresis sample buffer containing the anionic detergent sodium dodecyl sulfate and the reducing agent 2-mercaptoethanol was achieved. The assay covers a range of sensitivity from 40 ng to 20 micrograms of protein. The procedure is applicable to large numbers of samples.     

Fat cell beta 1-adrenergic receptor: structural evidence for existence of disulfide bridges essential for ligand binding

Agents that react chemically with sulfhydryl groups of proteins modify the response of adenylate cyclase to stimulation by beta-adrenergic agonists. N-Ethylmaleimide, an agent that alkylates sulfhydryl groups, inactivates both the catalytic moiety of adenylate cyclase and the stimulatory, regulatory guanine nucleotide binding protein Ns of rat fat cells but fails to affect binding of antagonists to the beta-adrenergic receptor [Malbon, C. C., Graziano, M. P., & Johnson, G. L. (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 3254-3260]. Treating membranes of rat fat cells with dithiothreitol or beta-mercaptoethanol, agents that reduce disulfide bridges of proteins, results in a loss of binding of beta-adrenergic radioligands to the receptor. The specific binding of radioligands to beta-adrenergic receptors that are solubilized in digitonin is affected similarly by treatment with disulfide bridge reducing agents. beta-Adrenergic receptor purified from rat fat cells and treated with beta-mercaptoethanol (10%) and then subjected to gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate migrates as a Mr 67 000 peptide [Cubero, A., & Malbon, C. C. (1984) J. Biol. Chem. 259, 1344-1350]. In the absence of disulfide bridge reducing agents, however, the purified receptor exhibits greater electrophoretic mobility, migrating as a peptide with Mr 54 000. Treating the native form of the purified receptor with beta-mercaptoethanol (0.1-10%) or dithiothreitol (0.1-10 mM) decreases the ability of the receptor to bind beta-adrenergic ligands, decreases the electrophoretic mobility of the receptor, and results in receptor peptides migrating with molecular weight ranging from 54 000 to 67 000 when subjected to gel electrophoresis in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulfate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Direct recovery of intracellular proteins from Candida utilis using reverse micelles in combination with a reducing agent

Summary Intracellular proteins were directly extracted from Candida utilis using reverse micelles in combination with a reducing agent. Extraction at pH 10 using 80 mM cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and 0.2 % 2-mercaptoethanol was the most favorable condition for cell permeabilization and protein solubilization. Stripping at pH 7 in the presence of 0.5 M KCl resulted in the efficient recovery of solubilized proteins.     

The removal of exogenous thiols from proteins by centrifugal column chromatography

Centrifugal column chromatography was shown to provide a rapid, efficient, and useful means of separation of various low molecular weight thiols from proteins. The single chromatographic step procedure employed standard 5 ml plastic syringes containing Sephadex G-25 as the bed matrix and required less than 5 min to produce average dilutions of 5000-, 980-, and 25-fold, respectively, from 5 to 200 mM initial concentrations of 2-mercaptoethanol, dithiothreitol, and reduced glutathione in the sample as measured by titration with 5,5'-dithiobis-(2-nitrobenzoic acid). Dihydrofolate reductase solutions of 0.07-0.08 mM were separated from 50 mM 2-mercaptoethanol, dithiothreitol, or reduced glutathione with a minimum 16,500-fold dilution of the thiol after centrifugal chromatography on two consecutive columns. Thymidylate synthase solutions of 0.06 mM were effectively separated from 50 mM 2-mercaptoethanol or dithiothreitol with a minimum average 5900-fold dilution of the thiol after consecutive column chromatography. There was no change in either the physical or chemical properties of the enzyme throughout the course of the experiments as determined by activity, active site sulfhydryl group titration, and binding assays. Recoveries of protein obtained in the load fraction were usually in excess of 70% of the protein loaded with virtually no dilution from the initial concentration. This method was developed in order to facilitate the study of the active site sulfhydryl groups in enzymes.     

Errors in pH measurements in dilute or sulfhydryl-containing buffers

Large errors in pH measurements were found with most types of reference electrodes when used in buffers containing sulfhydryl reagents (either 1–5 mm 2-mercaptoethanol or 5–10 mm dithiothreitol), or when electrodes were used in dilute buffers (≤25 mm) without sulfhydryl reagents. These errors which are confined to the reference electrodes depend on its history, although new electrodes exhibit errors in sulfhydryl solutions. The errors appear independent of pH and buffer ions. Although high ionic strengths reduce dilution errors, sulfhydryl-induced errors persist. Numerous tests have been unsuccessful in clarifying the molecular sources of these errors. Sulfhydryl effects are usually discernible by the downward pH drift, whereas errors in dilute buffer are frequently stable. Due to the prevalence and magnitude of these errors, increased precautions in pH measurements are needed, as suggested.     

Assay of proteins by Lowry's method in the presence of high concentrations of β-mercaptoethanol

β-Mercaptoethanol interferes in the determination of protein by the Lowry method (1–6). The interference can be overcome by the precipitation of proteins by trichloroacetic acid or acetone or by the use of H₂O₂ which oxidizes the sulfhydryl groups of β-mercaptoethanol (5). Both these methods have inherent disadvantages. Ross and Schatz (5) described a procedure for protein determination in the presence of high concentrations of β-mercaptoethanol where they removed the interference by the addition of iodoacetate. But addition of iodoacetate decreased the sensitivity of the reaction. The removal of interference by β-mercaptoethanol by heating has also been reported (3), but we observed that this procedure is not feasible when a large amount of β-mercaptoethanol is present in the protein samples. In the method reported in this communication, we made use of vacuum drying for the removal of interference by β-merceptoethanol. This method is simple, sensitive, takes less time, and can be used for the determination of protein in the presence of β-mercaptoethanol at levels as high as 10% in a sample volume of 1.0 ml (1.43 mmol) without using any additional chemical steps.     

Protein aggregation mediated by cysteine oxidation during the stacking phase of discontinuous buffer SDS-PAGE

The resolution of complex protein mixtures by discontinuous buffer SDS-PAGE is accomplished by their concentration into thin bands in the stacking gel, followed by their separation during migration through the resolving gel. Recombinant human interferon-inducible protein-10 (IP-10), a 10-kDa C-X-C chemokine with four cysteines, aggregated during the stacking phase of SDS-PAGE and generated a band with an apparent molecular mass of 18 kDa. This aggregation depended on the presence of reduced sulfhydryl residues on IP-10, on the amount of loaded protein, and on the concentration of the ammonium persulfate used to polymerize the stacking gel. The aggregation of IP-10 could be prevented by reduction of its sulfhydryls with dithiothreitol followed by irreversible blockade with iodoacetamide. These methods may be useful in the prevention of aggregation of sulfhydryl-containing proteins during SDS-PAGE, especially when large quantities are analyzed to assess their purity.     

Differentiation of bacterial autolysins by zymogram analysis

The use of zymograms in which the bacterial cell wall heteropolymer peptidoglycan is incorporated into the resolving gel of SDS-PAGE has led to the identification of various SDS stable peptidoglycan hydrolases (autolysins). To examine the specificity of autolysins with respect to O-acetylated peptidoglycan, a discontinuous SDS-PAGE system has been developed that operates under neutral conditions. [Bis(2-hydroxyethyl)imino]tris(hydroxymethyl)methane (Bis-Tris) buffers are employed with pH 6.8 and 6.3 for the separating and stacking gels, respectively, while the anode buffer N-2-acetamido-2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid (Aces)-HCl and the Bis-Tris cathode buffer both had a pH of 6.8. These conditions resulted in a relative trailing ion mobility of 0.349 and 0.137 in the resolving and staking gel, respectively, under room temperature conditions. Peptides and proteins were resolved in the 3-100 kDa range with a 10% acrylamide resolving gel. Comparison of zymograms that incorporated unacetylated or chemically O-acetylated peptidoglycan revealed the specificity of hen egg-white lysozyme for the unacetylated material. A preliminary analysis of the autolysins produced by the urinary tract pathogen Proteus mirabilis indicated that some enzymes were specific for either O-acetylated or non-O-acetylated peptidoglycan while others displayed no clear preference toward either of the two substrates.     

Use of chemically modified proteins to study the effect of a single protein property on partitioning in aqueous two-phase systems: Effect of surface charge

A series of charge-modified thaumatins with different values of surface charge were partitioned in aqueous two-phase systems (ATPS) to study the effect of surface charge as a single property on partitioning. Electrophoretic mobility of the proteins in titration curves was used as a measure of surface charge. Four modified proteins derived from thaumatin with the following values of isoelectric point: 8.70, 8.15, 5.60, and 4.50 were used for partitioning. The resolution of the systems in terms of protein surface charge was calculated. Partitioning of modified thaumatins in PEG 4000/dextran systems with phosphate buffer, Tris buffer, NaCl, KCl, and sulfate salts was carried out. Among the sulfate salts tested, the addition of 50 mM Li(2)SO(4) to the system buffered with phosphate gave the highest value of resolution for differences in surface protein charge (RSPC). It shows a decrease in the value of K (partition coefficient) with an increase in the protein's charge. The addition of 100 mM KCl to the system promoted the opposite effect on the RSPC value. Charge-modified proteins were partitioned in PEG/salt systems to investigate the ability of these systems for resolving differences in surface charge. The PEG/citrate system seemed to have almost no ability for resolving proteins on the basis of surface charge differences; PEG/phosphate systems had some capability for resolving differently charged proteins. The more negative proteins tended to have higher values of K than the more positively charged fractions. The use of charge-modified proteins allowed the investigation of the effect of protein surface charge on partitioning in aqueous two-phase systems independently from other protein parameters as they were prepared from a common parent protein thaumatin. This technique provides an interesting novel tool to investigate the effect of protein surface charge on partitioning in ATPS taking protein charge as an independent parameter. (c) 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Sulfhydryl groups in glycolipid transfer protein: formation of an intramolecular disulfide bond and oligomers by Cu2+-catalyzed oxidation

Glycolipid transfer protein (GLTP) purified from pig brain facilitates the transfer of various glycolipids between lipid bilayers. Purified GLTP migrates as two bands of different mobility in SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) under non-reducing conditions. The slower component and the faster component constituted about 80% and about 15%, respectively, of purified GLTP. Treatment of GLTP with 45 microM CuSO4 resulted in a decrease in the slower component, an increase in the faster component, and the formation of oligomeric components. The faster and oligomeric components were quantitatively converted to the slower component by reduction with 2% 2-mercaptoethanol in the presence of 1% SDS. The formation of oligomeric components was enhanced by increasing the concentration of CuSO4 to 450 microM and 4.5 mM. Oxidation of GLTP catalyzed by CuSO4 resulted in a decrease in the transfer activity and an increase in the apparent binding affinity of GLTP to 1-O-(beta-D-galactopyranosyl)-N-[10-(1-pyrenyl)decanoyl]-D-erythro- sphingosine (PyrGalCer). The oligomeric components and the monomeric components were isolated by chromatography on a Sephadex G-75 column. It was found that GLTP in fractions enriched with the monomeric components had very high transfer activity and is responsible for most of the transfer activity in the oxidized GLTP. Treatment of GLTP with 1.27 mM HgCl2 resulted in a formation of components unresolvable on SDS-PAGE and also resulted in a reduction of the transfer activity to one-third. However, no obvious change in the binding affinity of GLTP to PyrGalCer was observed by HgCl2 treatment. Treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol restored the activity of GLTP inactivated by HgCl2, whereas the activity inactivated by CuSO4 was not restored by treatment with 2-mercaptoethanol. These results suggest that the transfer activity depends on the turnover rate of the GLTP-PyrGalCer complex which is affected by modification of sulfhydryl groups of GLTP. The sulfhydryl group content of GLTP was estimated by the use of 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB). A value of 2.2 mol sulfhydryl groups per mol of GLTP was found in the presence of 0.5% SDS and one sulfhydryl group in a GLTP molecule was very rapidly oxidized in the native state, from which it is assumed that the slower component contains three sulfhydryl groups per GLTP molecule and the faster component contains one sulfhydryl group and one disulfide bond per GLTP molecule.     

Production of recombinant human serum albumin from Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Human serum albumin has been constitutively expressed in a Saccharomyces cerevisiae brewing yeast. After cell growth and disruption the product was associated with the insoluble fraction and represented approximately 1% of total cell protein. After the cell debris was extensively washed, the albumin was solubilized with 8 M urea and 28 mM 2-mercaptoethanol in 50 mM sodium carbonate buffer, pH 10. The denatured albumin was refolded by dialysis and further purified by anion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. Losses of renatured material could be reduced, or higher protein concentrations used during refolding, if the denatured product was purified by cation-exchange chromatography in urea prior to refolding. Apart from an additional N-terminal N-acetyl methionine, the refolded product proved identical to human serum albumin derived from plasma when compared by a variety of physical, chemical, and biological analytical methods.     

An androgen binding protein in the testis cytosol fraction of adult rats. Comparison with the androgen binding protein in the epididymis

The cytosol fraction of rat testicular homogenates contained a specific androgen binding protein (t-ABP), indistinguishable from, the androgen binding protean in. the epididymis(e-ABP) in terms of its chromatographic behaviour by gel filtration, sedimentation rate, mobility on polyacrylamide electrophoresis and steroid specificity(5α-diaydrotestosterone(DHT) > testosterone > estradiol-17β > parogesterone and estradiol-17α).The stability of t-ABP as well was similar to that of e-ABP. The aBP-DHT complexes were stable between pH 6.5–10, exhibiting the highest degree of binding between pH 8–9. The binding activity persisted after heating at 50°C for 30 min., whereas heating at 60°C for 30 min. completely destroyed the binding. DHT did not significantly increase the stability towards pH and temperature denaturation. Binding activity was not reduced by 1 mM p-chloro-mercuri-phenyl-sulphonate (PCMPS), whereas similar treatment with 1 nM N-ethyl-maleimide(NEM) or 1 mM Ellman's reagent reduced it by some 10–50 per cent. Exposure to 10 mM β-mercaptoethanol(βME) reduced the binding by 60–70 per cent. These studies strongly indicate that t-ABP and e-ABP are identical proteins.Hemicastration for 4 weeks eliminated the ABP from the epididymal cytosol fraction on the castrated side, indicating that this protein is produced by the testis.     

A novel ribonuclease with antiproliferative activity from fresh fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus

An 18-kDa ribonuclease (RNase) with a novel N-terminal sequence was purified from fresh fruiting bodies of the mushroom Hypsizigus marmoreus. The purification protocol comprised ion exchange chromatography on DEAE cellulose, affinity chromatography on Affi-gel blue gel, ion exchange chromatography on CM-cellulose and Q-Sepharose and gel filtration by fast protein liquid chromatography on Superdex 75. The starting buffer was 10 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.2), 10 mM Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.2), 10 mM NH(4)OAc buffer (pH 5), 10 mM NH(4)HCO(3) buffer (pH 9.4) and 200 mM NH(4)HCO(3) (pH 8.5), respectively. Absorbed proteins were desorbed using NaCl added to the starting buffer. A 42-fold purification of the enzyme was achieved. The RNase was unadsorbed on DEAE cellulose, Affi-gel blue gel and CM-cellulose but adsorbed on Q-Sepharose. It exhibited maximal RNase activity at pH 5 and 70 degrees C. Some RNase activity was detectable at 100 degrees C. It demonstrated the highest ribonucleolytic activity (196 U/mg) toward poly C, the next highest activity (126 U/mg) toward poly A, and much weaker activity toward poly U (48 U/mg) and poly G (41 U/mg). The RNase inhibited [(3)H-methyl]-thymidine uptake by leukemia L1210 cells with an IC(50) of 60 microM.     

Problems encountered in measuring erythrocyte pyrimidine 5'-nucleotidase activity

An improved method of two-dimensional electrophoresis that allows unequilibrated first-dimension gels to be loaded and electrophoresed on second-dimension gels twice the length used in the O'Farrell technique has been developed. Normally, the electrophoresis of unequilibrated first-dimension gels on long second-dimension gels with the resolving gel set at pH 8.8 results in poor resolution of low-molecular-weight proteins. Adjusting the pH of the resolving gel to pH 8.3 maintains the low-molecular-weight proteins in a stacked configuration during their migration through the length of the 10% acrylamide gel. Utilization of a 10 to 20% exponential polyacrylamide gradient in a resolving gel set at pH 8.3 separates these low-molecular-weight proteins with excellent resolution. Electrophoretic resolution of protein spots in resolving gels set at pH 8.8 is not as sharp as in gels set at pH 8.3, and resolution progressively deteriorates in gels set at higher pH values.     

Coimmobilization of Lactate Dehydrogenase and Low-Molecular-Weight Thiols on Sepharose

Lactate dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.27) and dithiothreitol (DTT) were coimmobilized on Sepharose activated with cyanogen bromide. It was demonstrated that the addition of 10 mM DTT (but not 2-mercaptoethanol) during immobilization increased the enzyme specific activity 1.5–5-fold depending on the initial extent of Sepharose activation by cyanogen bromide. The total activity increased two- to threefold. The lactate dehydrogenase preparations were rich in matrix-immobilized sulfhydryl groups (1.8–13.0 nmol per ml gel). The presence of DTT increased the stability of immobilized lactate dehydrogenase.     

Effect of 2-mercaptoethanol on pH gradients in isoelectric focusing

When hydrophobic samples, or membrane proteins, are disaggregated in buffers containing detergents (e.g. Nonidet P-40), urea and 2-mercaptoethanol, and applied at the cathodic end of a gel cylinder or slab for isoelectric separation, as routinely performed for two-dimensional techniques, a severe disturbance of the alkaline region of the pH gradient ensues. This phenomenon has been attributed to high protein loads, which supposedly overcome the buffering power of isoelectric carrier ampholytes. On the contrary, in the present study it has been found that this suppression of the alkaline end of the pH gradient is due to 2-mercaptoethanol, which is a buffer with pK 9.5. This compound ionizes at the basic gel end and is driven electrophoretically along the pH gradient, sweeping away, along its path, and focused carrier ampholytes.