高寒沙地人工林的气流场特征与防风功能

人工造林是高寒沙地极具生态修复效益与生态挑战的治沙技术。该研究选取青海湖沙地8~10年生的沙棘、乌柳、樟子松和小叶杨人工林作为观测对象,采用手持气象仪结合样方调查方法观测林地2008~2018年的风况环境的时空变化,分析植株附近气流场和防风功能的植物种、高度层和年变化。结果表明：(1)植株株后的气流降幅(20%~85%)和植株有效防护距离(1.0~10.0 m)存在显著的植物种和高度层差异,乌柳和小叶杨(50%~85%,3.5~8.0 m)均大于沙棘和樟子松(20%~65%,1.0~2.0 m)。(2)植株附近流速的方位差异表现为株前>株侧>株后,流向上的方位差异较小;多株植物间的南北通道和中心区成为气流高速区。(3)人工林地植物的防风功能主要表现在中下层(风速降幅18%~76%),且表现为樟子松>乌柳>沙棘>小叶杨,在10年间增长了5%~15%,对应各林地地表输沙率近6年降低了30%~90%,临界起沙风速增大2.0~3.0 m/s。研究发现,人工林的防风机制主要为营造植株不同部位的令流速流向差异来削减风能,4种人工林植物的适宜造林规格为1.0~2.0 m。     

绿洲荒漠过渡带风况对波文比和蒸散发的影响

波文比-能量平衡法是目前蒸散发研究常用的方法之一。在利用波文比-能量平衡法对荒漠地区,尤其对绿洲荒漠过渡带的蒸散发进行研究时,发现有波文比波动大、蒸散发结果准确性不高等问题。如何提高波文比-能量平衡法在绿洲荒漠过渡带的准确性成为荒漠干旱区精确研究水分收支急需解决的问题。在以前的研究基础上,发现绿洲荒漠过渡带的不同风况对波文比有不同影响,这可能是造成波文比-能量平衡法在绿洲荒漠过渡带精度不高的主要原因。为了证明这个假设,于2010—2012年在西北民勤绿洲荒漠过渡带进行了野外连续观测,观测了不同风况条件下波文比、不同高度的温度差、湿度差以及蒸散发的变化规律,分析了它们的特征及其影响因素。结果表明,研究区观测期内波文比值在-17.3—16.2范围内变化,波动较大,呈"U"型变化,生长季中期波文比值低于初期和末期;在无风天气,绿洲荒漠过渡带温度、湿度梯度不受水平气流的影响,波文比波动小,异常值少,波文比方法测算出的蒸散量较为准确,能够代表实际蒸散量,所测得民勤绿洲荒漠过渡带波文比日均值为0.07,日蒸散量为1.6mm/d;在绿洲风和荒漠风天气,绿洲荒漠过渡带空气温度、湿度结构发生明显改变,波文比波动大,不同风况使得大气处于逆温或逆湿的状态,波文比-能量平衡法所测得的蒸散量负值增多,适用性降低。因而在应用波文比-能量平衡法估算绿洲荒漠过渡带的蒸散发时应该选择合适的天气和观测点,避开风况对观测结果的影响。     

Advances in sex determination in bats and its utility in wind‐wildlife studies

We developed a simple and reliable genetic method to determine sex in bats from the Vespertilionidae and Molossidae families. Polymerase chain reaction was used to amplify a portion of the introns within the zinc‐finger‐X (Zfx) and zinc‐finger‐Y (Zfy) genes. We designed primers to produce size variation between the Zfx and Zfy products that could be visualized using gel electrophoresis. Using an example from our wind‐wildlife research, we show how sex data generated using this method are superior to sex data based on external morphology. Our method allows for the generation of sex data across a wide range of bats that can be used to address key questions in wildlife forensics, behavioural ecology, conservation and evolutionary biology.     

基于“风感”的紧凑型城市开放空间风环境实测和CFD模拟比对研究

城市开放空间的风场不仅影响微环境的"风感"舒适度还影响宏观尺度的城市气候。从景感生态学的角度出发,首先阐述"风感"的定义,总结了街道峡谷空间风场的基本规律和特点。运用Kestrel NK4500手持气象站对城市开放空间的风环境进行实测,采用CFD(Computational Fluid Dynamics)模拟软件Fluent 14.0对不含绿地的同一空间进行风环境模拟,通过两者的数据比对来研究紧凑型城市开放空间内绿地对行人高度风场的实际干扰程度。结果发现,紧凑型城市开放空间的"风感"受建筑和绿地空间布局的共同影响。当建筑高于绿地时,风场受建筑的控制;当林带高于建筑时,林带对风环境的影响程度受其疏密度影响。疏密度较高的常绿林带对风向和风速影响很大,而疏密度较低的林带会影响风速,对风向影响不大。影响风速的主要因素是空间围合所形成的空气域,相比实体、多孔介质,空气域对风的阻力要小的多。如铺装、草坪上方的通风廊道是影响行人高度层通风、导风的关键因素。紧凑型空间内的绿地在行人高度应保持通畅以保证通风,并通过建立平面和竖向上的通风、导风廊道体系,促进空气循环。     

风洞内粘虫飞翔行为与气流的关系

利用自制的昆虫飞翔实验风洞 ,系统观测了在风洞条件下粘虫在不同流速实验气流中的起飞行为与飞翔行为。结果表明 ,微风能刺激粘虫起飞 ,试虫表现明显的偏爱迎风 (或稍偏一点角度 )起飞的习性 ,飞翔时亦多采取迎风 (或稍偏一点角度 )的姿势。试虫在气流中的实际位移是昆虫飞翔位移与气流位移的矢量和。当气流速度小于 2 m/ s时 ,逆风向位移占多数 ;而气流速度为 3～ 4 m/ s时 ,94 .8%的试虫为顺风向位移。     

设施塑料大棚风洞试验及风压分布规律

风洞试验是研究建筑结构表面风压分布规律的最重要且有效的技术手段.利用NH-2型风洞研究设施塑料大棚表面风压分布规律,风洞为串置双试验段闭口回流风洞,风速连续可调,最高风速为90 m/s.试验模型的几何缩尺比为1:6,模型表面共布置192个测点,其中端面布置3排测压点,共63个测点,模型固定在风洞转盘上,试验风向角从0°到180°,间隔15°,共13个风向角.测量和分析不同风向角下设施大棚表面的风压系数和分布规律,并推导出了设施大棚各区域发生风灾的临界风速.结果表明:设施大棚迎风面以风压力为主,迎风边缘等值线密集,风力梯度大;背风面则受风吸力影响,风力变化平缓.在不同风向角下,设施大棚各迎风区域风压系数均由正压向负压过渡,在此过程中出现了零压区;而一直背风的区域风压系数均为负值.在45°风向角下,大棚顶端迎风边缘最高点处的负压达到最大.根据公式推导出各区域的临界风速,设施大棚顶部两侧区域受风吸力影响最大,最小临界风速为14.5 m/s,研究为设施大棚的风灾防御提供科学依据.     

我国北方风蚀区冬油菜抗风蚀效果

河西走廊地区属我国北方风蚀区,通过对河西走廊冬油菜、冬小麦、麦茬和春播等4种主要农田地表类型(处理)进行风洞模拟实验,比较各个处理的抗风蚀效果.结果表明:冬油菜、冬小麦、麦茬和春播4种处理地表的粗糙度分别为4.2、4.1、3.9和0.7;起动风速分别为14、13、12 m · s~(-1)和6 m · s~(-1);平均风蚀模数分别为22.3 、23.3、42.5 kg · hm~(-2) · h~(-1)和543.6 kg · hm~(-2) · h~(-1);输沙率分别为0.1、0.1、0.2 g · m~(-2) · min~(-1)和23.3 g · m~(-2) · min~(-1).依据粗糙度、起动风速、风蚀模数和输沙率评判,4种主要地表类型的抗风蚀效果依次为,冬油菜＞冬小麦＞麦茬＞,春播最差.因此,推广冬油菜、冬小麦等越冬作物的种植是解决我国北方风蚀区农田土壤风蚀、土地沙漠化以及根治沙尘暴尘源的有效途径和措施.     

植被的防治风蚀作用

土壤风蚀是造成干旱、半干旱地区土地荒漠化与沙尘暴灾害的首要因素,也是目前全球性的主要环境问题之一.许多研究表明,通过植物防治风蚀是一种最根本、经济而有效的措施.本文在阅读大量国内外该领域文献的基础上,介绍了目前研究植被防治风蚀作用的风洞实验、野外观测和模型模拟3种主要方法,阐述了植被防治风蚀作用的机理及影响因素,并结合当前国内存在的一些问题和不足,对今后应重点开展的研究和需要解决的问题作了探讨.     

土壤风蚀控制研究进展

土壤风蚀是沙漠化过程的重要组成过程和首要环节,是许多国家和地区需要解决的一个主要环境问题.从风蚀的形成机制出发,按性质将控制风蚀的措施分为生物措施、化学措施和机械措施,并简要论述了这些防治风蚀的措施和一些重要结论.根据各地的具体环境和条件,可以单独或配套使用这些措施,以达到控制风蚀的目的;同时,应加强管理,使这些措施发挥其应有的作用,以便进一步改善环境.     

Patterns of Bat Fatalities at Wind Energy Facilities in North America

Abstract Wind has become one of the fastest growing sources of renewable energy worldwide, but widespread and often extensive fatalities of bats have increased concern regarding the impacts of wind energy development on bats and other wildlife. We synthesized available information on patterns of bat fatalities from a review of 21 postconstruction fatality studies conducted at 19 facilities in 5 United States regions and one Canadian province. Dominance of migratory, foliage- and tree-roosting lasiurine species (e.g., hoary bat [Lasiurus cinereus]) killed by turbines was consistent among studies. Bat fatalities, although highly variable and periodic, consistently peaked in late summer and fall, coinciding with migration of lasiurines and other species. A notable exception was documented fatalities of pregnant female Brazilian freetailed bats (Tadarida brasiliensis) in May and June at a facility in Oklahoma, USA, and female silver-haired bats (Lasionycteris noctivagans) during spring in Tennessee, USA, and Alberta, Canada. Most studies reported that fatalities were distributed randomly across turbines at a site, although the highest number of fatalities was often found near the end of turbine strings. Two studies conducted simultaneously in the same region documented similar timing of fatalities between sites, which suggests broader patterns of collisions dictated by weather, prey abundance, or other factors. None of the studies found differences in bat fatalities between turbines equipped with lighting required by the Federal Aviation Administration and turbines that were unlit. All studies that addressed relationships between bat fatalities and weather patterns found that most bats were killed on nights with low wind speed (<6 m/sec) and that fatalities increased immediately before and after passage of storm fronts. Weather patterns may be predictors of bat activity and fatality; thus, mitigation efforts that focus on these high-risk periods could reduce bat fatality substantially. We caution that estimates of bat fatality are conditioned by length of study and search interval and that they are biased in relation to how searcher efficiency, scavenger removal, and habitat differences were or were not accounted for. Our review will assist managers, biologists, and decision-makers with understanding unifying and unique patterns of bat fatality, biases, and limitations of existing efforts, and it will aid in designing future research needed to develop mitigation strategies for minimizing or eliminating bat fatality at wind facilities.     

Life Cycle Assessment of Offshore Wind Farm Siting: Effects of Locational Factors,Lake Depth,and Distance from Shore

According to previous studies, the life cycle energy intensity of an offshore wind farm (OWF) varies between 0.03 and 0.13 megawatt‐hours (MWh) of primary energy for each MWh of electricity generated. The variation in these life cycle energy intensity studies, after normalizing for capacity factor and life span, is significantly affected by OWF location because of geographical properties, namely, wind speed and water depth. To improve OWF siting, this study investigates how an OWF's distance from shore and geographical location impacts its environmental benefit. A process‐based life cycle assessment is conducted to compare 20 OWF siting scenarios in Michigan's Great Lakes for their cumulative fossil energy demand, global warming potential, and acidification potential. Each scenario (four lake locations at five offshore distances) has unique foundation, transmission, installation, and operational requirements based on site characteristics. The results demonstrate that the cumulative environmental burden from an OWF is most significantly affected by (1) water depth, (2) distance from shore, and (3) distance to power grid, in descending order of importance, if all other site‐relevant variables are held constant. The results also show that when OWFs are sited further offshore, the benefit of increased wind energy generation does not necessarily outweigh the increase in negative environmental impacts. This suggests that siting OWF nearer to shore may result in a better life cycle environmental performance. Finally, we demonstrate how much an OWF's environmental burdens can be reduced if the OWF system is either recycled, transported a shorter distance, or manufactured in a region with a high degree of renewable energy on the grid.     

陕北长城沿线植被恢复与生态系统防风固沙服务模拟分析

为探究风沙边缘地区植被恢复与生态系统防风固沙服务能力之间的作用机制以及如何保证防风固沙服务的可持续发展,选择毛乌素沙漠边缘地区--陕北长城沿线为研究区。利用Theil-Sen斜率估算、M-K显著性检验、修正风蚀方程（Revised Wind Erosion Equation,RWEQ）和情景分析法,评估分析2000-2018年该地风沙治理工程效果和生态系统防风固沙服务的时空变化,并着重分析在风蚀因子改变的条件下,植被恢复对土壤风蚀和生态系统防风固沙服务能力的影响。结果表明：（1）在2000-2018年风沙治理工程中陕北长城沿线地区植被恢复状况显著改善,表明多年来在风蚀治理工作中取得显著的效果。（2）在实际情景中,随着植被不断的恢复,风蚀发生的危险程度总体在减小,而风蚀因子是导致实际风蚀量显著改变的主要原因。从生态系统防风固沙服务角度出发,在不同年份防风固沙总量变化显著,2005年和2010年防风固沙量达到最小、最大值,分别为4569.18万t和64164.44万t,差异明显,致使2005和2010年防风固沙服务能力也达到历史最低和最高值。（3）通过最小风蚀因子情景模拟间接表明：植被恢复能够遏制风蚀现象的发生。但在最大风蚀因子情景下,风蚀现象依旧明显,而植被所发挥的生态系统防风固沙服务能力越显著。（4）综合上述3种情景,每年潜在风蚀量 > 防风固沙量 > 实际风蚀量,说明在最大危害程度内生态系统防风固沙服务具有明显的效果。通过研究不仅证实植被是实现防风固沙服务功能可持续发展的必要条件,同时恢复植被对风沙区域进一步发展状况与趋势有着至关重要的作用。     

Avoidance of headwinds or exploitation of ground effect—why do birds fly low?

ABSTRACT Birds often fly close to the ground or water. Wind shear theory predicts that wind speeds decline with proximity to the substratum, so birds might be expected to fly lower when flying upwind than when flying downwind. We tested this prediction and found that the wind shear equation is valid at heights below 4 m, with wind speed over a smooth surface ～40% lower at a height of 0.08 m than at 4 m. Birds that fly close enough to smooth substrata can also benefit energetically from ground effect, where vortices generated by their flight interact with the ground or water. This suggests that birds should use ground effect more when flying upwind than when flying downwind. We determined the percent time spent flying in ground effect by 21 species of passerine and non‐passerine birds flying in sheltered coastal aquatic and nearby terrestrial areas of County Cork, Ireland. We found that use of ground effect was uncommon for passerines, but common for a variety of non‐passerine waterbirds. However, phylogenetic analysis indicates no linkage between phylogeny and incidence of ground effect use and it is probable that incidence of use is determined by ecology rather than phylogeny. Great Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo) used ground effect most frequently over water (59.4% of time in flight). Over land, Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica) used ground effect most often (19.8% of time). Phylogenetic contrasts regression analysis showed no significant relationship between use of ground effect and either wing aspect ratio or wing loading for 18 of our focal species, though simple linear regression analysis indicated that birds with greater wing loading used ground effect slightly (but significantly) more often. We found that 95% of Great Cormorants flying upwind used ground effect whereas only 35% did so when flying downwind. Few Black‐headed Gulls (Chroicocephalus ridibundus) used ground effect (probably because they fly high to locate prey), but still showed greater use when flying upwind (25%) than downwind (2.5%). When flying upwind in ground effect at the wind speeds encountered in our study, the velocity for minimum power (V_mp) for Great Cormorants was exceeded, suggesting theoretical benefits of about 14.3%. Our study indicates that several species exploit both wind shear and ground effect to minimize energy expenditure during commuting and foraging, but that others do not, because of either complexity of habitat morphology or the demands of their foraging ecology.     

Variation in flight characteristics associated with entry by eagles into rotor-swept zones of wind turbines

Automated curtailment of wind turbines can reduce fatality rates of wildlife but the resulting increased number of curtailments can reduce power generation. Tailoring curtailment criteria for each individual turbine could reduce unnecessary curtailment, yet it is unknown whether the risk to wildlife varies among turbines. We demonstrate turbine-specific variation in the speed, altitude, approach angle and distance metrics associated with entry by eagles into rotor-swept zones. Our results thus illustrate the potential value of turbine-specific curtailment criteria to reduce fatality rates of wildlife at wind energy facilities.     

Short-term variability in physical forcing in temperate reservoirs: effects on phytoplankton dynamics and sedimentary fluxes

1. The effects of wind events on phytoplankton dynamics were investigated in two temperate reservoirs. 2. Meteorological forcing, change in physical and chemical structure of the water column and biological responses of phytoplankton communities were followed for 3 weeks in three seasons. 3. Depending on the season, the phytoplankton response differed in response to nutrient and light conditions, and to the intensity of stratification and mixing. 4. We demonstrated that, on a time scale of a few days, wind events can modify phytoplankton dynamics, in terms of size structure and exported biomass. An increase of mixing favoured the largest size class and disadvantaged the smallest size class, while an increase in stratification had the opposite effects. The short‐term change in size structure was reflected in the sedimentary fluxes but with a time lag.     

土壤风蚀影响因子与防治技术

土壤风蚀是当今制约世界各国农业可持续发展和环境质量的主要因素。本文从土壤质地、风速、土壤湿度和植被覆盖等方面介绍了影响土壤风蚀的主要因素,并详细阐述了各个因素与风蚀量之间的数量关系;同时总结出了当前国际上流行的几种能够有效防治风蚀的方法,并且通过比较各种防治方法的优缺点。提出目前解决中国土壤风蚀最可行的途径是保护性耕作为主,其他技术为辅;最后,借鉴西方新制度经济学的观点,分析了目前土壤风蚀防治进展缓慢的原因,并提出了相关的政策性建议。     

Bird Mortality in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area,California

Abstract The 165-km² Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA) in west-central California includes 5,400 wind turbines, each rated to generate between 40 kW and 400 kW of electric power, or 580 MW total. Many birds residing or passing through the area are killed by collisions with these wind turbines. We searched for bird carcasses within 50 m of 4,074 wind turbines for periods ranging from 6 months to 4.5 years. Using mortality estimates adjusted for searcher detection and scavenger removal rates, we estimated the annual wind turbine–caused bird fatalities to number 67 (80% CI = 25–109) golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), 188 (80% CI = 116–259) red-tailed hawks (Buteo jamaicensis), 348 (80% CI = −49 to 749) American kestrels (Falco sparverius), 440 (80% CI = −133 to 1,013) burrowing owls (Athene cunicularia hypugaea), 1,127 (80% CI = −23 to 2,277) raptors, and 2,710 (80% CI = −6,100 to 11,520) birds. Adjusted mortality estimates were most sensitive to scavenger removal rate, which relates to the amount of time between fatality searches. New on-site studies of scavenger removal rates might warrant revising mortality estimates for some small-bodied bird species, although we cannot predict how the mortality estimates would change. Given the magnitude of our mortality estimates, regulatory agencies and the public should decide whether to enforce laws intended to protect species killed by APWRA wind turbines, and given the imprecision of our estimates, directed research is needed of sources of error and bias for use in studies of bird collisions wherever wind farms are developed. Precision of mortality estimates could be improved by deploying technology to remotely detect collisions and by making wind turbine power output data available to researchers so that the number of fatalities can be related directly to the actual power output of the wind turbine since the last fatality search.     

珠江三角洲地面风场的特征及其城市群风道的构建

利用珠三角20个观测站1964—1983年的风数据分析了珠三角城市群地面风场风向、风速分布与季节变化特征,并基于经验正交函数(EOF)进行了地面风场的空间分类。呈缺口盆地地形的珠三角风速较低,为3—2 m/s,整个区域风速南高北低;以伶仃洋为界,西岸高于东岸;西南部潭江谷地夏季多南风,冬季为北风,东岸东江谷底全年多东风,北江与西江河谷冬季盛行北风,夏季为东南风。综合风向与风速,结合地形,可将珠三角地面风场由南向北依次划分为较高风速区、中风速区和低风速区三类。根据空间尺度以及在区域中发挥的作用,珠三角城市群应构建多级风道,且风道还有常年与季节之别:伶仃洋(伶仃洋—虎门—狮子洋—广州水道)、西江(磨刀门—九江—三水)、潭江河谷应属于一级常年风道;北江(清远—三水)和东江(博罗—狮子洋)为一级季节风道。广州—三水段、黄埔—东莞段、中山—江门段以及伶仃洋段是影响整个珠三角大气环境质量风道的枢纽地段。城市群规划中对枢纽段超高建筑群进行风环境影响的评价,对枢纽段河道宽度、建筑物高度与密度的控制,将有助于提高珠三角城市群的空气质量,并防范下垫面粗糙度改变引起峡谷风的新风险。     

Avian and Bat Fatality Rates at Old-Generation and Repowered Wind Turbines in California

ABSTRACT Wind turbines in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA), California, USA, have caused annual fatalities of thousands of raptors and other birds. Alameda County implemented an Avian Protection Program requiring mitigation measures and eventual repowering to modern wind turbines, all intended to reduce raptor fatality rates 50% from levels estimated for 1998–2003. Two years into the 3-year program, we compared estimates of fatality rates between 1998–2003 and 2005–2007 and between a repowered wind project (Diablo Winds) and the APWRA's old-generation wind turbines. The APWRA-wide fatality rates increased significantly for multiple bird species, including 85% for all raptors and 51% for all birds. Fatality rates caused by the Diablo Winds repowering project were not lower than replaced turbines, but they were 54% and 66% lower for raptors and all birds, respectively, than those of concurrently operating old-generation turbines in 2005–2007. Because new-generation turbines can generate nearly 3 times the energy per megawatt of rated capacity compared to the APWRA's old turbines, repowering the APWRA could reduce mean annual fatality rates by 54% for raptors and 65% for all birds, while more than doubling annual wind-energy generation. Alternatively, the nameplate capacity of a repowered APWRA could be restricted to 209 megawatts to meet current energy generation (about 700 gigawatt-hr), thereby reducing mean annual fatalities by 83% for raptors and 87% for all birds. In lieu of repowering, bird fatalities could be reduced by enforcing operating permits and environmental laws and by the County requiring implementation of the Alameda County Scientific Review Committee's recommendations.