外泌体与自噬体相互关系研究进展

真核细胞内膜系统由细胞内相互联系的膜状细胞器组成,包括外泌体的生成和自噬过程,对应激反应和维持细胞内稳态起着重要作用。外泌体是含有蛋白质与核酸内容物的多泡体分泌到体外形成的胞外囊泡,而自噬是溶酶体依赖性的降解和循环再利用的过程。研究发现,外泌体的生成和自噬之间有着共同的分子机制,二者存在实质性的交互通信。对外泌体的生成和自噬的过程,包括二者与溶酶体之间的关系进行综述。     

自噬体膜的来源

细胞自噬是指细胞通过自噬-溶酶体(autolysosome)降解变性蛋白聚集物和受损细胞器的过程. 自噬对于细胞内环境的稳态、物质的平衡、胚胎发育以及疾病的发生发挥重要作用. 在电镜下观察,自噬体膜是一个双层脂质膜结构. 细胞中因缺乏除了自噬相关蛋白9 (autophagy-related protein 9,ATG9)以外的自噬体膜相关蛋白,故难以确定自噬体膜的来源. 自噬体膜的来源也因此成为目前自噬研究领域的热点问题. 关于自噬体膜的来源,学术界存在两种观点：一种认为自噬体膜是细胞在自噬体组装位点(pre-autophagosomal structure, PAS)重新合成的;另一种观点则认为自噬体膜来源于细胞已有的某些细胞器(如内质网、高尔基体、内吞体、质膜和线粒体). 该文综述了近年有关自噬体膜来源于细胞已有的某些细胞器的研究进展,旨在为相关领域的研究提供参考.     

自噬与外泌体在急性肺损伤中的研究进展

急性肺损伤(ALI)是一种常见的临床疾病,在全世界范围内引起严重的健康问题,但其发病机理尚不清楚。自噬(autophagy)是当前生物医学研究热点之一,涉及了多种病理生理过程。近期研究表明,自噬与包含ALI在内的多种肺部疾病的发病进展有关。外泌体(exsome)是由多种活细胞分泌的,由脂质双层被膜包围的纳米级结构(30～100 nm)。它通过传递其囊泡内包含的蛋白质,脂质和核酸来调节细胞间通讯和相互作用。外泌体的存在对其供体细胞、受体细胞、以及细胞间结构都有着重要的生理和病理意义。因此,外泌体的功能及特点得到越来越多的关注,成为疾病的诊断和治疗策略发展的新目标。在本篇综述中,我们概括了近年来自噬和外泌体对ALI病理生理的影响,并提出了二者可能的关联假设。     

昆虫细胞自噬的生物学意义和自噬体膜的来源

细胞自噬(autophagy)是生物体广泛存在的细胞内自主降解过程。该过程通过自我吞噬细胞质成分和细胞器形成具有双层膜结构的自噬体, 与溶酶体融合实现细胞内物质的循环利用。细胞自噬在饥饿、 缺氧、 内质网胁迫、 病原入侵、 蛋白聚集等不良环境条件下实现自我挽救, 而细胞自噬的大量发生也是程序性细胞死亡(PCD)的启动和执行者之一。目前人们对自噬体分子组装和自噬发生的分子通路已有较深入的了解, 但仍然在很多重要问题上难以达成共识。本文结合我们的研究进展, 对昆虫细胞自噬的生物学意义和自噬体膜的来源问题进行综述和探讨。昆虫在营养相对匮乏的情况下发生低水平自噬(常态自噬), 用于维持细胞内的新陈代谢和继续生存的需要。昆虫在摄食阶段受到过度饥饿的刺激, 在变态发育时期受到蜕皮激素(20E)的诱导, 幼虫组织细胞发生高水平自噬和凋亡(apoptosis), 细胞表现为不可逆死亡, 过度饥饿导致幼虫发育迟缓或者死亡, 而20E导致幼虫蜕皮和幼虫组织退化或消亡。不同于酵母和高等动物细胞中的深入研究, 病原入侵是否和如何诱导昆虫细胞发生自噬, 目前尚缺乏足够的文献依据, 值得深入探讨。几乎所有的细胞器(内质网、 高尔基体、 线粒体)膜都可能是自噬体膜的来源, 这一问题在昆虫中也有待进一步诠释。     

外泌体对睾丸微环境调控机制研究及应用进展

外泌体（exsomes）是一类具有生物活性的双层脂质组成的小囊泡,可携带不同类型的信息物质与受体细胞结合,通过信息传递与物质交换,促发受体细胞的表型发生变化。本文总结了在睾丸微环境中,外泌体通过调节细胞因子促进睾丸微环境中细胞增殖、调节细胞免疫维持睾丸免疫环境、调节氧化应激修复受体细胞功能、调节细胞自噬改善生精能力、调节细胞凋亡改善精子发生、调节细胞因子影响睾酮分泌等机制维持睾丸微环境稳态,并对外泌体在男科相关疾病预防、诊断、治疗中的作用进行归纳,外泌体在男性不育、勃起功能障碍、精索静脉曲张、性腺功能减退、前列腺癌等疾病诊疗中具备明显优势。外泌体作为一种新兴的应用物质,随着外泌体工程和提取工艺的不断优化,以及相关机制研究的不断深入,外泌体在男科疾病中的临床运用成为可能,有望成为治疗男科疾病的新手段。     

综述: 细胞自噬的研究方法

细胞自噬的研究是目前生物医学领域热点之一,广泛参与各种生理和病理过程．目前普遍采用的自噬检测方法包括电镜、免疫荧光、蛋白质印迹等方法检测自噬体及其标志蛋白．研究的深入对自噬的检测方法也提出了更高的要求,自噬功能障碍包括自噬体形成和降解障碍,因此,准确全面地评估自噬不仅包括自噬体的检测,还包括动态观察整个自噬性降解的过程是否顺畅(即自噬潮分析)．另外,通过药物或基因干预技术来人为地调控自噬以观察其在体内体外模型中的作用也是自噬分析的重要内容．需要注意的是,任何一种方法单独应用均不能作为自噬的依据,对任何方法得到的结果进行解释时必须慎重,特别是不能将自噬体的增多减少或自噬相关蛋白表达的高低等同于自噬的增强或减弱．     

浮游植物细胞自噬作用特点及研究方法

自噬(Autophagy)是真核生物细胞中一类高度保守的、依赖于溶酶体或液泡途径对胞质蛋白和细胞器进行降解的生物学过程。细胞自噬除维持细胞稳态外,在细胞响应各种外界胁迫中也发挥重要作用。近年来,陆续发现浮游植物能够通过细胞自噬应答众多环境胁迫,并在浮游植物细胞中鉴定出了类似于哺乳动物细胞中的核心自噬功能单位。自噬作为一种独特的程序性细胞死亡(PCD)形式,对浮游植物遭受胁迫后的个体存活及种群延续具有至关重要的作用。因此,细胞自噬也将成为浮游植物研究领域的一个新的着力点。主要综述了浮游植物细胞中自噬的保守性、诱导因素、调控机制、自噬与凋亡的交互作用以及浮游植物自噬研究方法等研究进展。     

自体吞噬———Ⅱ型程序性死亡

自噬 (autophagy) 是广泛存在于真核细胞内的一种溶酶体依赖性的降解途径,在饥饿的条件下,它可以调节细胞内长寿命蛋白和细胞器的降解,降解产物再被细胞重新利用 . 因此自噬在细胞发育、细胞免疫、组织重塑及对环境适应等方面有着十分重要的作用 . 近来发现,自噬还参与降解病原微生物、抵御感染的过程,称之为异噬 . 对自噬的分子机制和调节以及其在生理病理过程中的作用进行相应讨论 .     

自噬对胞内感染病原体的双重作用

自噬(autophagy)是细胞维持稳态的一种机制[1,2].在自噬发生过程中,来源不明的单层膜凹陷形成杯状双层膜的结构,包裹细胞质和细胞器部分,形成有双层膜的自噬体(autophagosome).自噬体随之与溶酶体融合形成自噬溶酶体,其中的细胞物质被溶酶体酶降解,降解后产生的氨基酸可以被细胞重新利用,参与物质的再循环.     

受体相互作用蛋白3（RIP3）调控细胞自噬的研究进展

受体相互作用蛋白3(receptor-interacting protein 3,RIP3)是一种丝氨酸-苏氨酸蛋白激酶，因其参与细胞自噬的调控而受到广泛关注。本文就RIP3在细胞自噬的发展和调控机制中的作用进行了总结。RIP3可参与mTOR信号通路的调节，同时与多种自噬所必须的蛋白发生相互作用，包括GNAI3/RGSI9、P62和TFEB等，从而其在自噬启动、自噬体形成和自噬溶酶体成熟等多个阶段发挥正向或负向调控作用，为进一步探究RIP3对细胞程序性死亡的调控机制及相关疾病治疗的潜在分子靶标筛选提供参考。     

PRNP/prion protein regulates the secretion of exosomes modulating CAV1/caveolin-1-suppressed autophagy

Prion protein modulates many cellular functions including the secretion of trophic factors by astrocytes. Some of these factors are found in exosomes, which are formed within multivesicular bodies (MVBs) and secreted into the extracellular space to modulate cell-cell communication. The mechanisms underlying exosome biogenesis were not completely deciphered. Here, we demonstrate that primary cultures of astrocytes and fibroblasts from prnp-null mice secreted lower levels of exosomes than wild-type cells. Furthermore, prnp-null astrocytes exhibited reduced MVB formation and increased autophagosome formation. The reconstitution of PRNP expression at the cell membrane restored exosome secretion in PRNP-deficient astrocytes, whereas macroautophagy/autophagy inhibition via BECN1 depletion reestablished exosome release in these cells. Moreover, the PRNP octapeptide repeat domain was necessary to promote exosome secretion and to impair the formation of the CAV1-dependent ATG12–ATG5 cytoplasmic complex that drives autophagosome formation. Accordingly, higher levels of CAV1 were found in lipid raft domains instead of in the cytoplasm in prnp-null cells. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that PRNP supports CAV1-suppressed autophagy to protect MVBs from sequestration into phagophores, thus facilitating exosome secretion.     

TMEM41B is a novel regulator of autophagy and lipid mobilization

Autophagy maintains cellular homeostasis by targeting damaged organelles, pathogens, or misfolded protein aggregates for lysosomal degradation. The autophagic process is initiated by the formation of autophagosomes, which can selectively enclose cargo via autophagy cargo receptors. A machinery of well‐characterized autophagy‐related proteins orchestrates the biogenesis of autophagosomes; however, the origin of the required membranes is incompletely understood. Here, we have applied sensitized pooled CRISPR screens and identify the uncharacterized transmembrane protein TMEM41B as a novel regulator of autophagy. In the absence of TMEM41B, autophagosome biogenesis is stalled, LC3 accumulates at WIPI2‐ and DFCP1‐positive isolation membranes, and lysosomal flux of autophagy cargo receptors and intracellular bacteria is impaired. In addition to defective autophagy, TMEM41B knockout cells display significantly enlarged lipid droplets and reduced mobilization and β‐oxidation of fatty acids. Immunostaining and interaction proteomics data suggest that TMEM41B localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Taken together, we propose that TMEM41B is a novel ER‐localized regulator of autophagosome biogenesis and lipid mobilization.     

Exosome function: from tumor immunology to pathogen biology

Exosomes are the newest family member of 'bioactive vesicles' that function to promote intercellular communication. Exosomes are derived from the fusion of multivesicular bodies with the plasma membrane and extracellular release of the intraluminal vesicles. Recent studies have focused on the biogenesis and composition of exosomes as well as regulation of exosome release. Exosomes have been shown to be released by cells of hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic origin, yet their function remains enigmatic. Much of the prior work has focused on exosomes as a source of tumor antigens and in presentation of tumor antigens to T cells. However, new studies have shown that exosomes might also promote cell-to-cell spread of infectious agents. Moreover, exosomes isolated from cells infected with various intracellular pathogens, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Toxoplasma gondii , have been shown to contain microbial components and can promote antigen presentation and macrophage activation, suggesting that exosomes may function in immune surveillance. In this review, we summarize our understanding of exosome biogenesis but focus primarily on new insights into exosome function. We also discuss their possible use as disease biomarkers and vaccine candidates.     

Multivesicular bodies and autophagy in erythrocyte maturation

During reticulocyte maturation, hematopoietic progenitors undergo numerous changes to reach the final functional stage which concludes with the release of reticulocytes and erythrocytes into circulation. During this process some proteins, which are not required in the mature stage, are sequestered in the internal vesicles present in multivesicular bodies (MVBs). These small vesicles are known as exosomes because they are released into the extracellular medium by fusion of the MVB with the plasma membrane. Interestingly, during this maturation process some organelles, such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, are wrapped in double membrane vacuoles and degraded via autophagy. We have demonstrated in human leukemic K562 cells a role for calcium and Rab11 in the biogenesis of MVBs and exosome release. Here we discuss evidence indicating that K562 cells present a high basal level of autophagy, and that there is an association between MVBs and autophagosomes, suggesting a role for the autophagic pathway in the maturation process of this cell type.     

Autophagy in Immune Defense Against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Autophagy is a newly recognized innate and adaptive immunity defense against intracellular pathogens, in keeping with its role as a cytoplasmic maintenance pathway. Induction of autophagy by physiological, pharmacological or immunological means can eliminate intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis, providing one of the first examples of the immunological role of autophagy. Under normal circumstances, M. tuberculosis survives in macrophages by inhibiting phagolysosome biogenesis. Induction of autophagy overcomes the mycobacterial phagosome maturation block, and delivers the tubercle bacilli to degradative, compartments, where they are eliminated.     

Autophagy in immune defense against Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Autophagy is a newly recognized innate and adaptive immunity defense against intracellular pathogens, in keeping with its role as a cytoplasmic maintenance pathway. Induction of autophagy by physiological, pharmacological or immunological means can eliminate intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis, providing one of the first examples of the immunological role of autophagy. Under normal circumstances, M. Tuberculosis survives in macrophages by inhibiting phagolysosome biogenesis. Induction of autophagy overcomes the mycobacterial phagosome maturation block, and delivers the tubercle bacilli to degradative compartments where they are eliminated.     

Mycobacterium tuberculosis inhibition of phagolysosome biogenesis and autophagy as a host defence mechanism

A marquee feature of the powerful human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis is its macrophage parasitism. The intracellular survival of this microorganism rests upon its ability to arrest phagolysosome biogenesis, avoid direct cidal mechanisms in macrophages, and block efficient antigen processing and presentation. Mycobacteria prevent Rab conversion on their phagosomes and elaborate glycolipid and protein trafficking toxins that interfere with Rab effectors and regulation of specific organellar biogenesis in mammalian cells. One of the major Rab effectors affected in this process is the type III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase hVPS34 and its enzymatic product phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PI3P), a regulatory lipid earmarking organellar membranes for specific trafficking events. PI3P is also critical for the process of autophagy, recently recognized as an effector of innate and adaptive immunity. Induction of autophagy by physiological, pharmacological or immunological signals, including the major antituberculosis Th1 cytokine IFN-gamma and its downstream effector p47 GTPase LRG-47, can overcome mycobacterial phagosome maturation block and inhibit intracellular M. tuberculosis survival. This review summarizes the findings centred around the PI3P-nexus where the mycobacterial phagosome maturation block and execution stages of autophagy intersect.     

Autophagy,exosomes and drusen formation in age-related macular degeneration

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is the leading cause of loss of vision in developed countries. AMD is characterized by a progressive degeneration of the macula of the retina, usually bilateral, leading to a severe decrease in central vision. An early sign of AMD is the appearance of drusen, which are extracellular deposits that accumulate on Bruch’s membrane below the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). Drusen are a risk factor for developing AMD. Some of the protein components of drusen are known, yet we know little about the processes that lead to formation of drusen. We have previously reported increased mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) damage and decreased DNA repair enzyme capabilities in the rodent RPE/choroid with age. In this study, we used in vitro modeling of increased mtDNA damage. Under conditions of increased mtDNA damage, autophagy markers and exosome markers were upregulated. In addition, we found autophagy markers and exosome markers in the region of Bruch’s membrane in the retinas of old mice. Furthermore, we found that drusen in AMD donor eyes contain markers for autophagy and for exosomes. We speculate that increased autophagy and the release of intracellular proteins via exosomes by the aged RPE may contribute to the formation of drusen. Molecular and cellular changes in the old RPE may underlie susceptibility to genetic mutations that are found in AMD patients.     

Cellular Internalization of Exosomes Occurs Through Phagocytosis

Exosomes play important roles in many physiological and pathological processes. However, the exosome–cell interaction mode and the intracellular trafficking pathway of exosomes in their recipient cells remain unclear. Here, we report that exosomes derived from K562 or MT4 cells are internalized more efficiently by phagocytes than by non‐phagocytic cells. Most exosomes were observed attached to the plasma membrane of non‐phagocytic cells, while in phagocytic cells these exosomes were found to enter via phagocytosis. Specifically, they moved to phagosomes together with phagocytic polystyrene carboxylate‐modified latex beads (biospheres) and were further sorted into phagolysosomes. Moreover, exosome internalization was dependent on the actin cytoskeleton and phosphatidylinositol 3‐kinase, and could be inhibited by the knockdown of dynamin2 or overexpression of a dominant‐negative form of dynamin2. Further, antibody pretreatment assays demonstrated that tim4 but not tim1 was involved in exosomes uptake. We also found that exosomes did not enter the internalization pathway involving caveolae, macropinocytosis and clathrin‐coated vesicles. Our observation that the cellular uptake of exosomes occurs through phagocytosis has important implications for exosome–cell interactions and the exosome intracellular trafficking pathway.