Rural-to-Urban Labor Migration,Household Livelihoods,and the Rural Environment in Chongqing Municipality,Southwest China

Rural migration and its relationship to the rural environment have attracted increasing research interest in recent decades. Rural migration constitutes a key component of human population movement, while rural areas contain most of the world’s natural resources such as land and forests. This study empirically evaluates a conceptual framework incorporating rural household livelihoods as an integrative mediating factor between rural migration and the rural environment in the context of rural-to-urban labor migration in Chongqing Municipality, Southwest China. The analysis draws on data collected through household surveys and key informant interviews from four villages. Results confirm the hypothesis that labor-migrant and non-labor-migrant households differ significantly in livelihood activities including agricultural production, agricultural technology use, income and consumption, and resource use and management. Implications for the subsequent environmental outcomes of rural labor out-migration and corresponding natural resource management and policy in rural origin areas are discussed.     

Economic damage level for leaf-cutting ants in function of the productivity index of eucalyptus plantations in an Atlantic Forest region

The production and quality of eucalyptus plantations have been studied in areas with different densities of ant nests, being important to estimate losses caused by leaf-cutting ants. The effects of leaf-cutting ant on wood production in differents productivity sites were studied in eucalyptus plantations in the region of Atlantic Forest, Minas Gerais State, Brazil from 2003 to 2006. Data of plots of the continuous forest inventory and data of leaf-cutting ant monitoring in eucalyptus plantations were obtained. Each unitary increment in the area of Atta spp. nests per hectare reduced the wood production of the eucalyptus forest between 0.04 and 0.13 m3.ha(-1), resulting in a level of economic damage for leaf-cutting ants between 13.4 and 39.2 m2.ha(-1), in this region. Moreover, this study innovated when using indices of forest productivity (site index) that promote better adjustment of the models and produce estimate more accurate of the level of economic damage for leaf-cutting ants in cultivated forests, allowing to conclude that the increase of the total area of ant nests reduces the wooden volume of eucalyptus, proportionally to the productive potential of the forest.     

Interdisciplinary research towards management of non-timber forest resources in lowland rain forests of Sri Lanka

Lowland and mid-elevational rainforests of Sri Lanka harbor a relict, endemic-rich flora which is also rich in timber and non-timber forest resources. These forests supply nearly half the total wood requirements of the country and are dwindling rapidly; management of the forests to conserve the biological richness and maintain environmental services is therefore a difficult proposition. This predicament is further compounded by the dependency of rural people on a range of non-timber forest resources for their subsistence and income. A forestry master plan recently prepared for Sri Lanka has not given adequate recognition to the important role played by non-timber forest resources in rural livelihood. This oversight is primarily due to the lack of quantitative information to justify the role of non-timber forest resources in forestry sector development. Forestry policies that ignore these resources often anger local people, leading the villagers to vent their disapproval through destructive actions such as burning timber plantations. Long-term interdisciplinary research in ecology, reproductive and soil biology, ethnobiology, silviculture, rural sociology and resource economics in progress at Sinharaja attempts to address these questions of sustainable development of forest resources in an integrated mode. While research oriented toward conservation investigates both short- and long-term ecosystem dynamics in natural and modified forest stands, utilization-oriented research probes the impact of increased human disturbance, particularly the impact of rural communities on dwindling forest resources, as well as the effect of forest conservation on rural livelihood. These studies continue to seek alternative methods of forest management which are socially acceptable, economically viable, and ecologically sustainable for multiple uses. These methods will assist in the refinement of current forest policies, forestry planning, and the implementation of new policies and plans in Sri Lanka.     

Contrasting demographics of tropical savanna and temperate forest eucalypts provide insight into how savannas and forests function. A case study using Corymbia clarksoniana from north‐eastern Australia

Eucalypts (Eucalyptus spp. and Corymbia spp.) dominate many communities across Australia, including frequently burnt tropical savannas and temperate forests, which receive less frequent but more intense fires. Understanding the demographic characteristics that allow related trees to persist in tropical savannas and temperate forest ecosystems can provide insight into how savannas and forests function, including grass–tree coexistence. This study reviews differences in critical stages in the life cycle of savanna and temperate forest eucalypts, especially in relation to fire. It adds to the limited data on tropical eucalypts, by evaluating the effect of fire regimes on the population biology of Corymbia clarksoniana, a tree that dominates some tropical savannas of north‐eastern Australia. Corymbia clarksoniana displays similar demographic characteristics to other tropical savanna species, except that seedling emergence is enhanced when seed falls onto recently burnt ground during a high rainfall period. In contrast to many temperate forest eucalypts, tropical savanna eucalypts lack canopy‐stored seed banks; time annual seed fall to coincide with the onset of predictable wet season rain; have very rare seedling emergence events, including a lack of mass germination after each fire; possess an abundant sapling bank; and every tropical eucalypt species has the ability to maintain canopy structure by epicormically resprouting after all but the most intense fires. The combination of poor seedling recruitment strategies, coupled with characteristics allowing long‐term persistence of established plants, indicate tropical savanna eucalypts function through the persistence niche rather than the regeneration niche. The high rainfall‐promoted seedling emergence of C. clarksoniana and the reduction of seedling survival and sapling growth by fire, support the predictions that grass–tree coexistence in savannas is governed by rainfall limiting tree seedling recruitment and regular fires limiting the growth of juvenile trees to the canopy.     

试论福建海岛植物资源的保护、改造及合理开发利用

本文阐述了福建沿海海岛植被及植物资源的现状;指出其存在的资源严重衰退、树种组成简单、森林生态效益差、果林生产落后、农业植被单一等问题;针对这些问题提出了切实有效的保护现有各类植被,发展针闲叶混交防护林,加快沙荒及荒山绿化,积极发展经济果林及旅游林业等建议,为各地开发海岛资源、振兴海岛经济提供参考。     

Co-invading ectomycorrhizal fungal succession in pine-invaded mountain grasslands

Ectomycorrhizal (EM) fungal communities that associate with invading pines (Pinus spp.) are expected to be poor in species diversity. However, long-term successional trajectories and the persistence of dispersal limitations of EM fungi in the exotic range are not well understood. We sampled the roots and surrounding soil of Pinus elliottii and P. taeda trees invading mountain grasslands of Argentina. We also sampled the EM fungal spore bank in grassland soil near (∼150 m) and far (∼850 m) from the original pine plantations. We found 86 different co-invasive EM fungal OTUs. Differential dispersal capacities among EM fungi were detected in the spore bank of grassland soil, but not under mature pines. After thirty years of invasion, the age, but not the degree of spatial isolation of pine individuals affected the EM fungal composition. We showed how EM fungal succession occurs during pine invasions, which may have clear consequences for ecosystem functioning of co-invaded sites.     

The Oil Mallee Project: A Multifaceted Industrial Ecology Case Study

The planting on degraded agricultural lands of eucalypts for leaf oil provides a commercial incentive for restoring original vegetation; a sustainable method of controlling groundwater and salinity; a product that is an environmentally benign substitute for a widely used solvent damaging to the ozone layer; and a mechanism for reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels. With integrated tree crop systems and improved harvesting and processing technologies, the Western Australian wheatbelt could produce large volumes of high-cineole eucalyptus oil from mallee eucalypts. With new industrial markets, a scale of planting could be achieved that would result in substantial land rehabilitation benefits. Industrial solvent markets are large and currently in transition following the recent withdrawal of 1,1,1-trichloroethane as a result of international measures to control ozone depletion. There is a strong preference in these markets for "natural" replacement products. Although large-scale penetration of these markets would need prices about half those prevailing in traditional eucalyptus oil markets, this goal should be achievable with the potential for economies of scale, genetic advances, and improved harvesting and processing technologies.     

Development and characterization of microsatellite loci for the tropical tree pathogen Botryosphaeria rhodina

Nineteen simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were developed for the pathogen and blue stain fungus Botryosphaeria rhodina. Eight pairs were found to be polymorphic among isolates collected from Pinus spp., whereas a further five pairs were polymorphic when isolates from Pinus spp. were compared with those from Eucalyptus spp. Nine isolates of B. rhodina collected from pines and eucalypts in South Africa, Mexico and Indonesia were used to demonstrate the range of the markers. Testing the markers yielded preliminary evidence that relationships among isolates are more closely linked to host than to geographical origin.     

Invasion Gateways and Corridors in the Carpathian Basin: Biological Invasions in Hungary

Biological invasions in Hungary are causing severe problems as a result of recent introductions and rapid land use changes. Poorly managed agricultural and rural, disturbed areas, and aquatic ecosystems are the most prone to plant invasions. Dry grasslands and semi-natural forests are less prone to invasions. A few plant species have led to human health (allergenic) problems. Some insect species have caused economic problems to crop production. A number of monitoring networks and control measures are in place for selected plants and insects. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of peripheral communities of knuckles national wilderness area of Sri Lanka: A farming systems approach

The Knuckles range of forests has been identified as a unique biological resource in Sri Lanka with much biodiversity. It is also important as a watershed which feeds the Mahaweli reservoir system. Having considered the present hazardous land-use practices such as cardamum production and shifting cultivation, the Knuckles range has been declared a national wilderness area. The Forest Department is in the process of preparing the management plan for the area. There are about 48 villages in the vicinity of the forest. This study attempts to estimate the composition of income in the peripheral communities, ticularly the extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFP) from this range of forests. Data were collected using structured questionnaires from 60 households in three villages in the vicinity of the forest. The rural economy is described using a farming systems approach and the net income contributed by each activity in the farming system was estimated. Results show that nine components of the farming system use resources from the village and the forest, with at least 47 plant species used by the villagers for different purposes. Cardamum production and shifting cultivation contribute significantly to the total income of the household, but the majority of households in the study depend upon forest resources to supply some portion of their income. Nevertheless, the monetary value of the annual income generated by NTFP is much lower than income from either cardamum production or shifting cultivation. If cardamum production and shifting cultivation are to be restricted under the conservation program, there could be additional pressure put on NTFP. Therefore, we suggest a study of the natural regen-eration capacity of selected NTFP; such information should be used in finalizing the management plan in the Knuckles range of forests.     

Forestry Matters: Decline of Oaks Will Impact Wildlife in Hardwood Forests

Abstract: Acom production by oaks (Quercus spp.) is an important food resource for wildlife in many deciduous forests. Its role as a hard mast crop that can be either stored or used to build fat reserves for winter survival cannot be replaced by most other potential foods. Changes in forest management, introduced pests and pathogens, and increased deer populations have resulted in significant changes in the demography of oaks in eastern North America, as evident in Forest Inventory and Analysis data. Specifically, maples (Acer spp.) are replacing oaks in many forests through dominance of the younger age classes. These changes are not yet obvious in mast production but will take decades to reverse. Effective forest management for mast production is arguably one of the more important tasks facing wildlife professionals, yet receives scant attention by both public and private land managers. Public forests need to explicitly include mast production in their forest planning and reduce adversarial relationships over forest management. Market forces are driving commercial forests toward forest certification. Private forests compose 80% of our oak forests and are the hardest group to influence. States have not been able to effectively market forest plans and we recommend joining with advocacy groups more adept at motivating the public. Increased communication between wildlife and forestry professionals is needed through agency restructuring and joint meetings of professional agencies at the state level. Professional wildlife and forest managers are encouraged to make increased use of monitoring data and form a multiagency cooperative using a joint venture model, which has been successful for other organizations.     

Responses of ground living arthropods to landscape contrast and context in a forest-grassland mosaic

Landscape context and contrast are major features of transformed landscapes. These concepts are largely described in terms of vegetation and land use, and are rarely used on how other biodiversity responds to these anthropogenic boundaries. South African grassland matrix is naturally dotted with indigenous forest patches which have recently been transformed with plantations of non-native species. We investigate how various arthropod groups (detritivores, predators, ants) respond to juxtaposition of pines, natural forests and grasslands. We assess landscape context effects between natural forests and pines by determining how species that commonly occur in the interiors of these habitats use the adjacent habitat, and how landscape contrast between natural forests and grassland affects these groups proportionately. We sampled arthropods using pitfall traps and active searches in transects running from natural forest interiors across the edge into the matrix interior (grassland or pines). Natural forests had higher predator and detritivore diversity, while grassland had greater ant diversity. Results highlighted the complementarity of natural forests and grassland for arthropod diversity. Higher beta-diversity was recorded across landscape contrast than landscape context. Pine and natural forest associated species overlapped into adjacent habitats indicating that pines are used by certain natural forest species. However, pines are not true natural forest extensions, with only some species being supported. Pines may be connecting naturally isolated arthropod populations, which could have important evolutionary consequences. Only through appreciation of a range of arthropod groups and their response to context and contrast across the whole landscape can we undertake meaningful biodiversity conservation.     

Bats of the Chilean temperate rainforest: patterns of landscape use in a mosaic of native forests,eucalyptus plantations and grasslands within a South American biodiversity hotspot

Forestry plantations represent about 4 % of the global land cover and demand for wood is steadily increasing worldwide. Impacts of forest plantations on biodiversity are controversial; forest plantations could positively influence biodiversity by producing a buffer zone between native forests and agriculture, while replacement of native forests with plantations could reduce biodiversity. Chile is one of the main producers of wood worldwide, and production is largely based on intensively managed monocultures of exotic tree species. Only a few studies have looked at the effects of forestry plantations on biodiversity in Chile, mainly focusing on pine plantations. The aim of this study was to characterize habitat use and richness of bats between native forests, eucalyptus plantations and grasslands in a biodiversity hotspot in southern Chile to determine how land use affects an important mammalian taxa. We found no difference in use or richness of bats in eucalyptus plantations versus native forests. Regional context within the larger Valdivian watershed (Andes, central valley, coastal range) had a stronger influence on bat activity and richness than land use type (native forest, plantation, grassland), with the Andean region being the most diverse and where most bat activity is concentrated. Our results suggest that the composition and structure of the surrounding landscape mosaic may be fundamental to determine the impacts of forestry and human land use on biodiversity.     

农户生计与生态系统服务关系的区域差异及驱动机制——以密云水库上游流域为例

深入揭示生态系统与农户福祉之间的关系,对实现农户差异化管理及区域可持续发展具有重要意义。本研究以密云水库上游流域(包括北京市和河北省的部分区域)为研究区域,基于1754份农户调查问卷数据,通过统计计量方法对比分析了流域内北京市、河北省农户福祉水平(以家庭总收入表示)与生态系统服务依赖性(以生态系统依赖性指数表示)的关系。结果表明: 流域内京冀农户生计与生态系统的互作模式均可分为4类,但京冀两地不同模式占比差异较大。北京农户样本中,占比最高的是高福祉-低依赖模式(33.9%),农户人均年收入显著高于河北农户,农户的各项生计资本也较河北省农户高;河北农户中,不提倡的低福祉-高依赖模式仍占比39.1%,对提升农户福祉水平至关重要的人力资本素质、社会资本、金融资本等均显著低于北京农户;河北农户主要依赖农业生产收入(41.2%),对土地的开发利用程度显著较高;相对于北京农户,河北农户的自然资源条件、人力资本素质对农户生计的影响更加显著。保持适当家庭规模、不断提高劳动力教育水平、提高低收入家庭的生态补偿标准是形成农户与生态系统良好互动关系(高福祉-低依赖型)的关键因素。     

Assessment of sustainable livelihoods of different farmers in hilly red soil erosion areas of southern China

Livelihood vulnerability in environmentally fragile areas is emerging as a key issue due to its positive feedback to environmental degradation. Assessment of sustainable livelihoods is a crucial prerequisite for targeting interventions. However, aggregated analysis usually obtained ambiguous conclusions because they ignored the heterogeneity of rural households. Here, we evaluated the livelihood sustainability of different rural households by constructing an improved Livelihood Sustainability Index (LSI) in hilly red soil erosion areas of southern China. Changting County was selected as the study case by virtue of its unique representativeness in soil erosion and poverty. The results showed that livelihood sustainability among rural households was far from equivalent. Different from previous studies, higher nonfarm income share was not always consistent with higher extent of livelihood sustainability. Besides nonfarm employment, agricultural specialization could be another viable pathway to attain sustainable livelihoods. We also found that intergenerational sustainability was one primary cause for long-term livelihood differentiation of rural households. The poor education in rural areas would aggravate livelihood vulnerability of the poor and threaten the sustainable livelihoods of specialized agricultural households. Policy implications include further investment in rural infrastructure, irrigation and drainage, and stimulus for land transfer and concentration to facilitate agrarian specialization; enhancing investment in rural education to improve intergenerational sustainability; as well as targeting of the most vulnerable households, for example, promoting development of social insurance, social relief, and medical services for orphans and widows.     

Determinants of the economic viability of mallee eucalypts as a short rotation coppice crop integrated into farming systems of Western Australia

Mallee eucalypts are being developed as a short rotation coppice crop for integration into agricultural systems in the south‐west of Western Australia. These have potential for biomass production for bioenergy, eucalyptus oil and generating carbon credits and to help control the extensive occurrence of dryland salinity. Some 12,000 ha of mallee planting has been undertaken since 1994, mostly in the form of wide‐spaced, narrow belts within the annual agricultural system. Production and market data were used to estimate levelized costs (LC) of mallee biomass production under different harvest regimes across 11 sites from 2006 to 2012. We found LC ranged from AUD40 to AUD257 fresh Mg^?1. LC was most strongly determined by mallee production, followed by the crop/pasture rotation decisions of the landholder. Mallee harvest regime had minor impact on LC. Crop and pasture yield loss due to competition from the mallee belts accounted for 38% of costs, harvesting biomass was 32%, opportunity cost of the land occupied by the mallee belts was 16% while establishment and maintenance costs accounted for 14% of the costs. When income from carbon sequestered in mallee root biomass was included, the LC dropped by an average of 11% at the current Australian price of AUD15 Mg^?1 CO₂ equivalent (CO₂e). The income from carbon sequestered in root biomass alone is unlikely to make mallee agroforestry economically viable. Hence, income from harvested biomass in the form of feedstocks for industry or carbon credits is necessary to make mallee agroforestry commercially attractive. LC for unharvested mallee belts ranged from AUD33 to AUD237 Mg^?1. Where above‐ and below‐ground biomass is converted to CO₂e at AUD15 Mg^?1, the LC drops to AUD11–AUD64, with three of 11 sites likely to be profitable. These three sites were characterized by high biomass production with low agricultural gross margins.     

The impact of land conversion on plant biodiversity in the forest zone of Cameroon

Floristic surveys were carried out in different land use systems(primary and secondary forest, fallows of different ages, cocoa plantations,crop fields) within the forest zone of Cameroon, to assess the impact of landconversion on above-ground plant biodiversity. Beside various diversity studies,plant density was measured and diameter at breast height was estimated.The results showed that the forest areas, which represent thehistoric biodiversity of the region, preserve the greatest number of species(160 species in primary forest and 171 in secondary forest). Our resultsindicate the relatively great importance of secondary forests as refuge areasfor primary forest plant species that may function as a starting point forpossible regeneration of original biodiversity. Species richness is reducedprogressively from the original forest (160 spp.) and secondary forests (171spp.), to Chromolaena odorata (Asteraceae) fallow fields(149 spp.), to an old fallow field (139 spp.), to a cocoa plantation (116 spp.)and to the farmland (64 spp.), where only weeds and crops contribute essentiallyto plant biodiversity. Also the number of species that are used for non-timberproducts (construction, food and medicines) decreased with increased landconversion.     

Constraints and Opportunities for Sustainable Livelihoods and Cash Income Generation from NTFPs in the Mountains of Northern Parts of Pakistan

Pakistan′s forest resource base is mostly found in the mountains of the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) supporting the livelihood of the rural poor and providing different ecological services. The present study was, therefore, initiated with the aim to evaluate different constraints and opportunities for sustainable livelihoods and cash income generation from NTFPs in the mountainous area of NWFP, Pakistan during 2008. Information was collected through questionnaire and interviews during field trips. A total of 117 NTFPs species have been recorded which are being used locally for various purposes such as fuel wood, fodder, medicinal plants, vegetables, mushroom, agricultural tools making, furniture, thatching, shade, fencing/ poles, ornamental purpose and animal products. The majority of plants are multi-functional like Pinus wallichiana provides timber, firewood, torch wood, the leaves/small branches are used as thatch for roofing, split logs are used for fencing and the decomposed needles are collected as humus for agricultural fields. These products were widely used by the indigenous community supporting their livelihood. The study proposes protection and sustainable management of these valuable resources for rural livelihoods, which might be useful for developing regional strategies of sustainable management of forest resources.     

Water stress,transpiration and leaf area index in eucalypt plantations in a bauxite mining area in south-west Australia

The clearing of native forests for open cut mining for bauxite is a potential cause for severe modification of the hydrological cycle. In the Darling Range, Western Australia, jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata Sm.) woodlands are being cleared for mining and are being replaced with plantations of other eucalypts. The plantation trees, which were up to 8 years old, showed no greater water stress than those of the original forest. The leaf area index of older plantation trees was usually higher than that of the original, mature forest. Transpiration rate was estimated on twigs enclosed briefly in a transpiration chamber. Prior test showed that this method was appropriate for comparisons in field grown eucalypts. Field measurements of stratified samples showed little difference in transpiration rate per unit leaf area between plantation forests and original forests. For the last 3 months of the dry season, however, transpiration per unit area of leaves was depressed by 25% in the plantation forest.     

陕北黄土高原贫困农户生计策略对生计资本的敏感性——以佳县为例

陕北黄土高原自然环境严峻,是我国农村生活最贫困的地区之一,不同地理地貌村庄的贫困农户生计策略对生计资本的敏感性还缺乏相关的实证检验。基于佳县的调研数据,将样本划分为风沙区、丘陵沟壑区和土石山区三类村庄,在贫困户和非贫困户生计资本与生计策略对比分析基础上,结合二元logistic模型对贫困农户生计策略由纯农型向非农型转变的关键因素进行分析,研究发现：人力资本、金融资本和社会资本的增加对贫困农户非农型生计策略的选择有正向作用,而自然资本、物质资本的增加对非农型生计策略的选择有负向作用。风沙区和丘陵沟壑区的结果与总样本相似,土石山区贫困农户自然资本越丰富反而越倾向于选择非农型生计策略。不同类型村庄生计策略存在显著差异,不调整生计策略的贫困农户未来仍有70％选择扩大农业、林业生产。在进行可持续生计策略调整时,个体经营和外地打工是他们主要选择的方式,自然灾害和红枣市场不景气是他们未来愿意选择生计多元化的主因。