Moult strategies of Cory’s Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea borealis: the influence of colony location, sex and individual breeding status

The replacement of old feathers is essential for birds, but it is also an energy-demanding task. As moult usually does not coincide with other stressful events in its annual cycle, such as reproduction and migration, the bird can optimise its use of time and energy allocated to different activities. There are very few studies comparing the moult strategies of populations with similar breeding calendars but occurring in areas of different habitat quality. Cory’s Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea have a partial moult–breeding overlap, an unusual phenomenon among pelagic seabirds. We have compared the moult schedules in Cory’s Shearwater colonies located in distinct environments (pelagic vs. coastal) and show that moult–breeding overlap is less extensive on Selvagem Grande, situated in deep oceanic waters, than on Berlenga, situated on the continental shelf. Colony attendance of failed breeders, most of which were moulting, was lower at Selvagem Grande than at Berlenga, which suggests that the feeding areas of birds from the former site are more distant from the colony. Failed breeders started to moult earlier than individuals still raising a chick, and breeding status had a stronger influence on determining the onset of wing-feather moult than colony location. Despite published evidence that internal circannual rhythms and external cues, such as variation in daylength, are important factors regulating moult schedules, it is clear that birds retain a considerable flexibility that allows them to respond to external factors in order to strategically manage time and energy in a way that is thought to maximise their fitness.     

Philopatry and faithfulness to nest site in Cory's Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea at Selvagem Grande

Mougin, J.-L., Granadeiro, J. P., Jouanin, C. & Roux, F. 1999. Philopatry and faithfulness to nest site in Cory's Shearwaters Calonectris diomedea at Selvagem Grande. Ostrich 70 (3&4): 229–232.

Nearly fledged Cory's Shearwater Calonectris diomedea chicks at Selvagem Grande occasionally desert their nest sites during the night, but generally return before dawn. The temporary use of other nest sites is rare and lasts less than two days. Almost all chicks from Selvagem Grande return to the island for their first breeding attempt; very few breed at islands outside the archipelago. On Selvagem Grande, almost half the males return to their native colony whereas more than 90% of females recruit to other colonies. Inter-colony movements sometimes exceed 1 km, but, if they return to their native colony, both sexes settle within 20 m of their natal site. From the second breeding attempt onwards, most birds of both sexes are faithful to the nest site. On average, less than 20% of birds desert their former nest site each year, with a shift of about 4 m only. Most nest shifts follow a breeding failure or a temporary respite from breeding, and are accompanied by a switch in partners.

Mougin, J.-L., Granadeiro, J. P. Jouanin, C. & Roux, F. 1999. Philopatrie et fidélité au nid chez le Puffin cendré Calonectris diomedea de Selvagem Grande. Ostrich 70 (3&4): 229–232.

Le poussin en fin de croissance du Puffin cendré Calonectris diomedea de Selvagem Grande déserte parfois son nid pendant la nuit, mais y revient généralement avant le jour. L'utilisation temporaire d'un autre site de nid est rare et dure moins de deux jours. Les jeunes adultes nés à Selvagem Grande reviennent presque toujours nicher sur l'île et extrêmement rarement en dehors de l'archipel. A Selvagem Grande, près de la moitié des mâles reviennent à leur colonie de naissance, mais moins de 10% des femelles. Le déplacement est parfois supérieur à 1 km mais, s'ils reviennent à leur colonie natale, les deux sexes s'établissent à moins de 20 m du nid où ils sont nés. A partir de leur deuxième reproduction, les deux sexes sont fidèles à leur nid. Moins de 20% des oiseaux changent de nid d'une année à l'autre, avec un déplacement de 4 m seulement, le plus souvent à la suite d'un échec ou d'une interruption temporaire de la reproduction, ce déplacement étant le plus souvent accompagne d'un changement de partenaire.     

Intra-population variation in the diet of an avian top predator: generalist and specialist foraging in Great Black-backed Gulls Larus marinus

ABSTRACT

Capsule: Great Black-backed Gulls Larus marinus breeding on Skokholm, UK, fed predominantly on seabirds, rabbits, refuse, and marine prey, with the majority of pairs being dietary generalists, but with some specialist pairs.

Aims: To understand the significance of Great Black-backed Gulls as top predators on a small offshore island with internationally important numbers of breeding seabirds (Skokholm, UK) by quantifying their diet and to determine how this varies within the breeding season, to test for pair-level dietary specialization and to examine the consequences of dietary differences for reproductive performance.

Methods: Regurgitated pellets were collected and analysed from 26 breeding pairs on Skokholm during 2017 and related to breeding success.

Results: Analysis of 1035 pellets revealed that, overall, Great Black-backed Gulls fed on seabirds (48% – mostly Manx Shearwaters Puffinus puffinus), mammals (38% – mostly European Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus), anthropogenic waste (7%), and marine prey (7%). Diet varied among pairs with 18 (73%) generalist pairs and 7 (27%) specialist pairs (of which, 5 were bird specialists and 2 were mammal specialists). Diet also varied seasonally, but pair-level dietary diversity was repeatable through the breeding season. Dietary diversity did not covary with breeding success.

Conclusion: Great Black-backed Gulls are top predators on Skokholm. Variation in diet among pairs emphasizes that not all individuals contribute equally in terms of predation. Understanding the incidence of this variation has important ecological implications, particularly where apex predators may exert a strong top-down influence.     

Arctic seabird food chains explored by fatty acid composition and stable isotopes in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard

Marine birds are important predators in the marine ecosystem, and dietary studies can give useful information about their feeding ecology, food webs and oceanographic variability. The aim of this study was to increase our understanding of the diet and trophic level of the seabirds breeding in Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. We have used fatty acids and stable isotopes, both of which integrate diet information over space and time, to determine trophic relationships in marine food webs. Fatty acid compositions of muscle from Little auk (Alle alle), Brünnich’s guillemot (Uria lomvia), Black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla), Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) and Glaucous gull (Larus hyperboreus) were determined and compared with their prey species. Canonical analysis (CA) showed that fatty acid composition differed among the five seabird species. Little auk, Black-legged kittiwake and Northern fulmar had high levels of the Calanus markers 20:1n9 and 22:1, indicating that these seabirds are a part of the Calanus food chain. Brünnich’s guillemot differed from the other species with much lower levels of 20:1n9 and 22:1. Brünnich’s guillemot is a pursuit diver feeding on fish and amphipods deeper in the water column, below 30 m. Glaucous gull also differed from the other seabird species, with a larger variation in the fatty acid composition indicating a more diverse diet. Trophic level analysis placed Little auk at the lowest trophic level, Brünnich’s guillemot and Black-legged kittiwake at intermediate levels and Glaucous gull and Northern fulmar at the highest trophic level.     

An effective method for trapping scavenging seabirds at sea

ABSTRACT Most studies of seabirds that involve trapping and marking birds are carried out at breeding colonies. This bias toward the breeding period and colony‐based research is partially caused by difficulties in capturing birds at sea. From 2005 to 2007, we used a cast net thrown by hand from a fishing boat to capture albatrosses and petrels at sea in the southwestern Atlantic Ocean. About 500 birds of 13 species were captured, ranging in size from the 30‐g Wilson's Storm‐petrel (Oceanites oceanicus) to the 10‐kg Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans). Cast nets are potentially useful for capturing any seabird that can be attracted close to fishing vessels by bait, such as sardines, squid, offal, or shark liver, thrown into the water. Our method was most effective for capturing bold species, such as Cape (Daption capense), Spectacled (Procellaria conspicillata), and White‐chinned (Procellaria aequinoctialis) petrels and Great Shearwaters (Puffinus gravis), but was not effective for capturing shy species, such as Cory's (Calonectris diomedea), Cape Verde (Calonectris edwardsii) and Manx (Puffinus puffinus) shearwaters, species that rarely sit on the water, such as Wilson's Storm‐petrels, Thin‐billed (Pachyptila belcheri) and Antarctic (Pachyptila desolata) prions and Atlantic Petrels (Pterodroma incerta), and species with excellent diving abilities, such as Sooty Shearwaters (Puffinus griseus). For many species of seabirds, cast nets would likely be more efficient for capturing large numbers of birds than other methods, such as hoop nets.     

Populations and trends of Canadian Arctic seabirds

Canada’s eastern Arctic (Nunavut and Arctic Quebec—Nunavik, N of 60°) supports large numbers of seabirds in summer. Seabird breeding habitat in this region includes steep, rocky coasts and low-lying coasts backed by lowland sedge-meadow tundra. The former areas support colonial cliff- and scree-nesting seabirds, such as murres and fulmars; the latter inland or coastal seabirds, such as terns, gulls and jaegers. The region supports some 4 million breeding seabirds, of which the most numerous are thick-billed murres (Uria lomvia; 75%), black guillemots (Cepphus grylle; 9%), northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis; 8%) and black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla; 6%). The majority of Arctic seabirds breed in a small number of very large colonies (>10,000 birds), but there are also substantial numbers of non-colonial or small-colony breeding populations that are scattered more widely (e.g. terns, guillemots). Population trends among Canadian Arctic seabirds over the past few decades have been variable, with no strongly negative trends except for the rare ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea): this contrasts with nearby Greenland, where several species have shown steep declines. Although current seabird trends raise only small cause for concern, climate amelioration may enable increased development activities in the north, potentially posing threats to some seabirds on their breeding grounds.     

Seasonal and annual differences in the foraging ecology of two gull species breeding in sympatry and their use of fishery discards

Niche segregation between similar species will result from an avoidance of competition but also from environmental variability, including nowadays anthropogenic activities. Gulls are among the seabirds with greater behavioural plasticity, being highly opportunistic and feeding on a wide range of prey, mostly from anthropogenic origin. Here, we analysed blood and feather stable isotopes combined with pellet analysis to investigate niche partitioning between Audouin's gull Larus audouinii and yellow‐legged gull Larus michahellis breeding in sympatry at Deserta Island, southern Portugal, during 2014 and 2015. During the breeding season there was considerable overlap in the adults’ diet, as their stable isotope values of blood and primary feather (P1) did not differ, and their pellets were comprised mainly by marine fish species. However, Audouin's gulls presented higher occurrences of pelagic fish, while yellow‐legged gulls fed more on demersal fish, insects, and refuse. SIAR mixing models also estimated a higher proportion of demersal fish in the diet of yellow‐legged gulls. We also found differences between the two gull species in chicks’ feathers, suggesting that Audouin's gull adults selected prey with lower carbon isotope values to feed their young. Secondary feather (S8) of Audouin's gull presented higher isotope values compared to yellow‐legged gulls, indicating different foraging areas (δ¹³C) and/ or trophic levels (δ¹⁵N) between the two species in the non‐breeding season. During both the all‐year and non‐breeding periods the yellow‐legged gull showed a broader isotopic niche width than Audouin's gull in 2013, and in 2014 the two gull species exhibited different isotopic niche spaces. Our study suggests that both gull species foraged in association with fisheries during the breeding season. In this sense, a discard ban implemented under the new European Union Common Fisheries Policy may lead to a food shortage, therefore future research should closely monitor the population dynamics of Audouin's and yellow‐legged gulls.     

Corvids congregate to breeding colonies of a burrow‐nesting seabird

Egg predation is a major cause of reproductive failure among birds, and can compromise the viability of affected populations. Some egg predators aggregate near colonially breeding birds to exploit the seasonal increase of prey resources. We investigated spatial and temporal variations in the abundance of an egg predator (little raven Corvus mellori; Corvidae) to identify whether ravens aggregate spatially or temporally to coincide with any of three potential prey species: burrow‐nesting little penguin (Eudyptula minor; Spheniscidae), short‐tailed shearwater (Ardenna tenuirostris; Procellariidae), and surface‐nesting silver gull (Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae; Laridae). We derived spatially explicit density estimates of little ravens using distance sampling along line transects throughout a calendar year, which encompassed little penguin, short‐tailed shearwater and silver gull breeding and non‐breeding seasons. High raven abundance coincided temporally with penguin and gull egg laying periods but not with that of shearwaters. The spatial distribution of raven density corresponded with the little penguin colony but not with shearwater or gull colonies. Thus, the presence of little penguin eggs in burrows correlated strongly with little raven activity, and this implies that little ravens may have learnt to exploit the plentiful subsurface food resource of little penguin eggs. Corvid management may be required to maintain the viability of this socially and economically important penguin colony.     

Intra- and interannual variation in the diet of the Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) at Martillo Island,Beagle Channel

Knowledge of seabirds’ diet at each breeding site and its temporal variation is key to understanding and evaluating how changes in marine resources affect each seabird population. In this study, we determined the diet of Magellanic penguins (MP, Spheniscus magellanicus) at Martillo Island, accounting for sex, breeding stage and year. We analyzed a total of 144 stomach contents during three consecutive breeding seasons (2006–2007, 2007–2008 and 2008–2009) and stages (incubation, early and late chick-rearing). MP fed mainly on fuegian sprat (Sprattus fuegensis), which represented 75 % of the biomass consumed by birds during the entire study. The next important prey was squat lobster (Munida gregaria), followed by Patagonian squid (Loligo gahi). Both sexes consumed similar prey items. We observed variation in diet relative composition among breeding years and stages. Fuegian sprat consumption decreased throughout the years whereas squat lobster increased. Penguins consumed a higher proportion of squat lobster and Patagonian squid during the incubation stage than in the chick-rearing stages, whereas fuegian sprat was almost the only prey item consumed during the late chick-rearing stage. MPs show certain flexibility in the use of resources probably as a response to changes in prey populations. Variability in the diet among different reproductive stages could be related to changes in the distribution and abundance of their main prey near the colony during the breeding season together with changes in the energy requirements of seabirds.     

Managing the Effects of Introduced Predators on Hawaiian Endangered Seabirds

Introduced predators are one of the greatest threats facing seabirds worldwide. We investigated the effects of multiple introduced predators on 2 endangered seabirds, the Newell's shearwater (Puffinus newelli) and the Hawaiian petrel (Pterodroma sandwichensis), on the island of Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻi, USA. Between 2011 and 2017, we recorded 309 depredations of which 35.6% were by feral cats, 50.2% by black rats (Rattus rattus), 10.4% by pigs (Sus scrofa; feral pigs), and 3.9% by barn owls (Tyto alba). Cats were the most destructive of the predators because they killed more breeding adults than chicks, which had repercussions on breeding probability in following years. Cats and rats were also the most prevalent of all the predators, depredating birds at all of the sites under consideration regardless of how remote or inaccessible. We also considered the effectiveness of predator control over the study period. Reproductive success at all sites increased once predator control operations were in place and depredations by all species except barn owls decreased. Furthermore, we modeled population trajectories for all sites with and without predator control. Without predator control, population trajectories at all sites declined rapidly over 50 years. With predator control operations in place, populations at all sites increased; thus, controlling introduced predators at endangered seabird colonies is important for their management. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Influence of habitat management on the abundance and diet of wild rabbit (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus</Emphasis>) populations in Mediterranean ecosystems

During the last decades wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations have been progressively declining in the Iberian Peninsula as a result of several factors, namely habitat deterioration. Hence, habitat management has become one of the most commonly used management techniques to restore wild rabbit populations. To test the efficacy of some of these measures (creation of pastures, opening firebreaks) in rabbit populations, two managed (M1 and M2) and two control areas (C1 and C2) were selected in the Portuguese Southwest (SW) Coast. In each study area, the influence of habitat management was tested assessing temporal changes in rabbit abundance obtained from pellet counts and in rabbits’ diet through microhistological analysis of fecal pellets. Rabbit densities were higher in managed than in control areas (mean annual values: M1–1.08 pellets/m²; M2–1.60 pellets/m²; C1–0.69 pellets/m²; C2–0.40 pellets/m²). In general, Gramineae was the most consumed plant group throughout the year and in all study areas. In control areas, consumption of alternative species with low nutritive value (e.g., Cistus ladanifer) was observed, especially in summer. Our data suggest a positive influence of habitat management on rabbit populations since in managed areas individuals presented an overall higher abundance and a more nutritive diet. In addition, there was no evidence that sown species were consumed in detriment to naturally occurring grasses, suggesting that in Mediterranean semi-arid regions clearing vegetation inside the scrubland might be sufficient to improve habitat conditions for rabbits.     

An evaluation of canes as a management technique to reduce predation by gulls of ground‐nesting seabirds

The best documented method to decrease predation of breeding seabirds by gulls are culling regimes; however, studies on the effectiveness of this method show ambiguous results. Here we tested an alternative method, using bamboo canes erected in four breeding sites of Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea as a gull‐deterrent. Although we found fewer predation attempts in the caned areas than in the control areas, canes did not reduce the probability of predation success per attempt. This pilot study documents that the use of canes as a conservation strategy to reduce gull predation is promising, economic and simple, and is thus probably a versatile tool for conservation managers.     

Prelaying exodus of Cory's Shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea borealis) on Selvagem Grande

Summary We stayed on the Portugese island of Selvagem Grande, 30° N 16° W, 300 km south of Madeira and 200 km north of Tenerife, from 9 May to 3 June 1991 in order to study the prelaying exodus in Cory's Shearwaters (Calonectris diomedea borealis) and its connection with the colony attendance cycles described earlier. Laying took place on 1.5 June ±3.4 days. During the preceding weeks males and females of Cory's Shearwater show very different attendance patterns. Females are absent for 19±4.8 days at minimum. Absences of males are much shorter and also much more variable. They last 7.9±6.0 days (coefficient of variation 76 %, as against 12 % in females). The first incubation stint of the males is badly synchronised with the laying: the delay between laying and the start of the males' first stint may amount up to one week, without compromising the breeding success. Two well marked attendance peaks have been observed, separated by an interval of 18 days, twice the length of that observed in June 1988. We suggest that this anomaly in the daily attendance graph is correlated with the prelaying exodus. The function of the prelaying exodus and its relation with the energy cost of producing the egg and the necessity of storing lipid reserves are discussed.

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Vorbrutzeitliches Verlassen der Kolonie beim Gelbschnabelsturmtaucher (Calonectris diomedea borealis) auf Selvagem Grande

Zusammenfassung Zwischen 9. Mai und 3. Juni 1991 untersuchten wir auf der portugisischen Insel Selvagem Grande, 30° N 16° W, 300 km südlich von Madeira und 200 km nördlich von Teneriffa gelegen, das Verlassen der Kolonie vor der Eiablage des Gelbschnabelsturmtauchers (Calonectris diomedea borealis) und die Beziehung zur Anwesenheit in der Kolonie. Gelegt wurde am 1,5 Juni ±3,4 Tage. In den Monaten vor der Eiablage zeigten Männchen und Weibchen sehr unterschiedliche Muster der Anwesenheit in der Kolonie. Während die Weibchen im Minimum durchschnittlich 19±4,8 Tage abwesend waren, war diese Abwesenheit bei den Männchen mit 7,9±6,0 Tagen wesentlich kürzer und variabler (Variationskoeffizient 76 % gegenüber 12 % bei den Weibchen). Die erste Brutbeteiligung des Männchens war kaum mit der Eiablage synchronisiert, doch war dadurch der Bruterfolg nicht beeinträchtigt. Die Anwesenheit in der Kolonie zeigte zwei Gipfel, die 18 Tage auseinander lagen. In 1988 betrug dieser zeitliche Abstand nur etwa die Hälfte. Es wird vermutet, dass dieser Unterschied mit dem Ausmaß des vorbrutzeitlichen Verlassens der Kolonie korreliert. Die Funktion dieses vorbrutzeitlichen Exodus und seine Beziehung zu den energetischen Kosten der Eiproduktion und der Bildung von Lipidreserven werden diskutiert.

     

Predator–prey dynamics of bald eagles and glaucous‐winged gulls at Protection Island,Washington, USA

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Reproductive investment and parental roles in Sabine's gulls<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Xema sabini</Emphasis>

More than 90% of avian species exhibit biparental care, though parental activities are often shared unequally between the members of a pair. Among gull species (Laridae), males and females generally share parental activities, although there appear to be considerable differences between species in the relative contribution of each sex. This study examined the behaviour of male and female Sabine's gulls (Xema sabini) during the incubation period and immediately post-hatch; particularly the amount of time they each invested in breeding activities. Although considered an aberrant species in aspects of behaviour and biology, the Sabine's gull showed a high reproductive investment by both sexes, as other gull species do. Males fed females prior to egg laying and contributed equally to incubation and chick provisioning, and females contributed equally to nest defence. Overall, there was no difference between the sexes in the extent of their contributions to parental care, although there was considerable individual variation within pairs. Sabine's gulls are Arctic breeders and the extent of their contributions to parental activities could have been influenced by their extreme breeding environment and short breeding season.     

Prospection alimentaire du puffin cendréCalonectris diomedea borealis de Selvagem Grande (30°09′N, 15°52′W) pendant l'incubation,par télémétrie satellitaire

The Cory's shearwater Calonectris diomedea borealis of Selvagem Grande (30°09′N, 15°52′W) during incubation forage mostly in the Canary Current, along the Moroccan coast where, owing to the enrichment of the surface waters by the upwelling of deep cold waters, productivity is high. The birds reach the Moroccan coasts approximately 36 h after leaving their breeding grounds, having travelled about 400 km. After a stay of 2–3 d off Cape Draa, they fly along the coast for a few days before returning to Selvagem Grande. They have covered at least 2 000 km, travelling mostly by day but feeding apparently by night as well as by day.     

Factors affecting egg dimensions and breeding success in the Cory''s Shearwater(Calonectris diomedea) of Selvagem Grande

Summary Eggs of the Cory's ShearwaterCalonectris diomedea borealis of Selvagem Grande (Madeira, 30°09N, 15°52W), show high variability in size and shape between females, while for each individual both are correlated over two seasons. During the first breeding years, females lay larger and more rounded eggs as their experience (number of years since first breeding) increases. Age (number of years since birth) probably has an effect on egg size but adult size has none. No important differences between the two years of study has been observed and no inter-colony variation is apparent. Finally, breeding success is directly linked to egg size but not to egg shape.

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Eigröße und Bruterfolg von Gelbschnabelsturmtauchern(Calonectris diomedea borealis) auf Selvagem Grande

Zusammenfassung Die Größe und Form der Eier des GelbschnabelsturmtauchersCalonectris diomedea borealis von Selvagem Grande (30°09N, 15°52W) variieren zwischen verschiedenen Weibchen erheblich, die einzelnen Weibchen legen jedoch in Folgejahren gleich große Eier. Erfahrenere Weibchen legen größere und rundere Eier. Ältere Weibchen legen größere Eier. Das Alter hat keinen Einfluß auf die Eigröße. Zwischen den beiden Untersuchungsjahren (1996 und 1997) gab es keine Unterschiede, auch nicht zwischen verschiedenen Kolonien. Bruterfolg und Eigröße waren positiv korreliert.

     

Foods of the south polar skua Catharacta maccormicki in the eastern Larsemann Hills,Princess Elizabeth Land,East Antarctica

Regurgitated pellets and food remains were collected near nest sites, and from a club site, of south polar skuas Catharacta maccormicki in the eastern Larsemann Hills, Princess Elizabeth Land, East Antarctica, during the skuas' presence in the area. The samples indicated that the snow petrel Pagodroma nivea, the most abundant seabird species breeding locally, formed the major dietary component, comprising some 66% of food items identified in pellets and 80% of the food remains obtained. Adélie penguins Pygoscelis adeliae (which do not breed in the Larsemann Hills), other seabirds, fish and marine foods were rarely found as remains or in pellets. However, refuse (meat, fish and vegetable remains) taken as food by skuas from nearby stations occurred in pellets at all sites and formed about 12% of the food remains collected and identified. In this study, foods taken by skuas were related both to the local breeding distribution of snow petrels, and to the possession of a feeding territory. Birds without feeding territories took somewhat fewer snow petrels and included more refuse from local stations in their diet, as did those at the club site. Future monitoring of the influence of anthropogenic foods (and inedible waste materials) on the species' ecology is considered important.     

Seabirds in the shelf edge waters bordering the Banc d'Arguin,Mauritania, in May

Seabird distribution was mapped over the shelf off the Banc d'Arguin, Mauritania, in May 1988 at the end of the upwelling season. Storm-petrels (Oceanitidae), were the most numerous with an average density of 14.5 km^–2. They were most abundant over water-patches rich in primary production or zooplankton, but the simultaneous presence of trawlers in these areas made it impossible to relate seabird density directly to hydrography. The trawlers attracted the seabirds and their waste served as an important source of food. The most numerous species in the area was the Wilson's Storm-petrel Oceanites oceanicus. Northern-hemisphere migrants, including summering sub-adults also used the area in numbers, and they too, profited from the fisheries. The Royal Tern Sterna maxima was the only local breeding seabird reaching the shelf slope area.     

Foraging success, kleptoparasitism and feeding techniques in scavenging seabirds: does crime pay?

Scavenging seabirds in the North Sea exploit discards with different success and by different feeding techniques. Northern gannet (Sula bassana) had the highest foraging success index, followed by lesser black-backed gull (Larus fuscus) and black-legged kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla). Northern fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis), mew gull (Larus canus) and black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) were the least successful species. Ranking species according to the ratio of fish stolen from vs. lost to other species (=robbery index), northern gannet, great black-backed gull (Larus marinus) and great skua (Catharacta skua) were at the top, northern fulmar and black-legged kittiwake at the bottom. Varying compositions of the feeding flocks influenced the foraging success of the species significantly. Both body length and body mass of the birds can well explain species order in the robbery index but not in the foraging success index. Our hypothesis that the most successful species employ particular feeding techniques and/or exhibit the strongest kleptoparasitic abilities could be confirmed to a large extent but not totally. During reduced overall feeding rates, some less successful species and/or species with weaker kleptoparasitic capabilities fared better than during intense feeding rates as predicted, some others did not.