Alterations in the cell cycle and in the protein level of cyclin D1, p21CIP1, and p16INK4a after exposure to 50 Hz MF in human cells

The effect of exposure to 50 Hz, 1 mT magnetic fields (MF) on the cell cycle in general, on the DNA synthesis in S-phase, and on the G1-phase regulating proteins Cdk4, cyclin D1, p16INK4a, and p21CIP1 was investigated in human amniotic fluid cells. The BrdU-incorporation assay revealed a significant diminution of S-phase cells in MF-exposed cultures. The protein level of Cdk4 did not change, but MF induced a decreased expression of cyclin D1 after 24 h and 30 h exposures. The level of p16INK4a increased at 1 h and 12 h after exposure, whereas the expression of p21CIP1 was enhanced at 6 h and 12 h after exposure. Reduced levels of both Cdk inhibitors were observed at longer exposure times (24 h, 30 h). Our results suggest an inhibitory effect of MF on the G1-phase induced by altered expression of p16INK4a and p21CIP1.     

Cell cycle arrest and modulation of HO-1 expression induced by acetyl salicylic acid in hepatocarcinogenesis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Control of cell proliferation is important for cancer prevention since cell proliferation has an essential role in carcinogenesis. In rodent carcinogenesis models, antioxidant agents suppress carcinogen-induced cellular hyper proliferation in the target organs. Strict control of cell division is an essential process to ensure that DNA synthesis and mitotic division are accurately and coordinately executed. We studied the interplay between cell cycle and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and the effect of the acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) in hepatic carcinogenesis. METHODS: Male CF1 mice pre-treated with dietary p-dimethylaminoazobenzene (DAB; 0.5%, w/w) were fed with ASA (0.16%, w/w). We investigated the hepatic expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E, Cdk2, Cdk4, p21, p27, p53; the level of bcl-2, an antiapoptotic protein and of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a marker of oxidative stress, by Western blot analysis. RESULTS: The treatment with ASA produced an important attenuation in the induction of cyclin E and cyclin D1 provoked by DAB. p21 and p27 levels were increased when animals received both drugs. The administration of ASA to DAB treated animals induced Cdk2 (29%). HO-1 induction (65%) provoked by DAB was diminished by ASA administration reaching lower induction levels (23%). CONCLUSION: The deregulation of cyclin/CDK expression and the up-regulation of p21 and p27 with the administration of ASA, post-treatment of the carcinogen administration, would block the pass through out to the G0/G1 check point to permit the cells to repair their DNA and HO-1 protected the liver from reactive oxygen species produced from DAB.     

Cyclin A but not cyclin D1 is essential for c-myc-modulated cell-cycle progression

The proto-oncogene c-myc is a key player in cell-cycle regulation and is deregulated in a broad range of human cancers and cell proliferation disorders. Here we reported that overexpression of c-myc in human embryonic lung fibroblasts (HEL) that have low endogenous c-myc enriched S phase cells with increased expression of cyclin D3, E, A, Cdk2, and Cdk4, and decreased expression of p21 and p27. To the opposite, using RNAi to downregulate c-myc expression in A549 cells that have high endogenous c-myc enriched G1 phase cells with decreased expression of cyclin D3, E, A, Cdk2, Cdk4, and increased expression of p21 and p27. We found that cyclin A expression was the most susceptive to changes in c-myc levels and essential in c-myc-modulated cell cycle pathway via co-transfection, however, cyclin D1 showed no change between treated and control groups in either HEL or A549 cells. Our results indicated that upregulation of c-myc expression promotes cell cycling in HEL cells, whereas downregulation of c-myc expression causes G1 phase arrest in A549 cells, and the c-myc-mediated cell-cycle regulation pathway was dependent on cyclin A and involved cyclin D3, E, Cdk2, Cdk4, p21, and p27, but not cyclin D1.     

Hyperoxia induces S-phase cell-cycle arrest and p21(Cip1/Waf1)-independent Cdk2 inhibition in human carcinoma T47D-H3 cells

Little is known about cell-cycle checkpoint activation by oxidative stress in mammalian cells. The effects of hyperoxia on cell-cycle progression were investigated in asynchronous human T47D-H3 cells, which contain mutated p53 and fail to arrest at G1/S in response to DNA damage. Hyperoxic exposure (95% O(2), 40-64 h) induced an S-phase arrest associated with acute inhibition of Cdk2 activity and DNA synthesis. In contrast, exit from G2/M was not inhibited in these cells. After 40 h of hyperoxia, these effects were partially reversible during recovery under normoxic conditions. The inhibition of Cdk2 activity was not due to degradation of Cdk2, cyclin E or A, nor impairment of Cdk2 complex formation with cyclin A or E and p21(Cip1). The loss of Cdk2 activity occurred in the absence of induction and recruitment of cdk inhibitor p21(Cip1) or p27(Kip1) in cyclin A/Cdk2 or cyclin E/Cdk2 complexes. In contrast, Cdk2 inhibition was associated with increased Cdk2-Tyr15 phosphorylation, increased E2F-1 recruitment, and decreased PCNA contents in Cdk2 complexes. The latter results indicate a p21(Cip1)/p27(Kip1)-independent mechanism of S-phase checkpoint activation in the hyperoxic T47D cell model investigated.     

S and G2 phase roles for Cdk2 revealed by inducible expression of a dominant-negative mutant in human cells

Cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2) is essential for initiation of DNA synthesis in higher eukaryotes. Biochemical studies in Xenopus egg extracts and microinjection studies in human cells have suggested an additional function for Cdk2 in activation of Cdk1 and entry into mitosis. To further examine the role of Cdk2 in human cells, we generated stable clones with inducible expression of wild-type and dominant-negative forms of the enzyme (Cdk2-wt and Cdk2-dn, respectively). Both exogenous proteins associated efficiently with endogenous cyclins. Cdk2-wt had no apparent effect on the cell division cycle, whereas Cdk2-dn inhibited progression through several distinct stages. Cdk2-dn induction could arrest cells at the G1/S transition, as previously observed in transient expression studies. However, under normal culture conditions, Cdk2-dn induction primarily arrested cells with S and G2/M DNA contents. Several observations suggested that the latter cells were in G2 phase, prior to the onset of mitosis: these cells contained uncondensed chromosomes, low levels of cyclin B-associated kinase activity, and high levels of tyrosine-phosphorylated Cdk1. Furthermore, Cdk2-dn did not delay progression through mitosis upon release of cells from a nocodazole block. Although the G2 arrest imposed by Cdk2-dn was similar to that imposed by the DNA damage checkpoint, the former was distinguished by its resistance to caffeine. These findings provide evidence for essential functions of Cdk2 during S and G2 phases of the mammalian cell cycle.     

Proliferating human cells hypomorphic for origin recognition complex 2 and pre-replicative complex formation have a defect in p53 activation and Cdk2 kinase activation

The Origin Recognition Complex (ORC) is a critical component of replication initiation. We have previously reported generation of an Orc2 hypomorph cell line (Delta/-) that expresses very low levels of Orc2 but is viable. We have shown here that Chk2 is phosphorylated, suggesting that DNA damage checkpoint pathways are activated. p53 was inactivated during the derivation of the Orc2 hypomorphic cell lines, accounting for their survival despite active Chk2. These cells also show a defect in the G1 to S-phase transition. Cdk2 kinase activation in G1 is decreased due to decreased Cyclin E levels, preventing progression into S-phase. Molecular combing of bromodeoxyuridine-labeled DNA revealed that once the Orc2 hypomorphic cells enter S-phase, fork density and fork progression are approximately comparable with wild type cells. Therefore, the low level of Orc2 hinders normal cell cycle progression by delaying the activation of G1 cyclin-dependent kinases. The results suggest that hypomorphic mutations in initiation factor genes may be particularly deleterious in cancers with mutant p53 or increased activity of Cyclin E/Cdk2.     

Ras links growth factor signaling to the cell cycle machinery via regulation of cyclin D1 and the Cdk inhibitor p27KIP1.

Activation of growth factor receptors by ligand binding initiates a cascade of events leading to cell growth and division. Progression through the cell cycle is controlled by cyclin-dependent protein kinases (Cdks), but the mechanisms that link growth factor signaling to the cell cycle machinery have not been established. We report here that Ras proteins play a key role in integrating mitogenic signals with cell cycle progression through G1. Ras is required for cell cycle progression and activation of both Cdk2 and Cdk4 until approximately 2 h before the G1/S transition, corresponding to the restriction point. Analysis of Cdk-cyclin complexes indicates that Ras signaling is required both for induction of cyclin D1 and for downregulation of the Cdk inhibitor p27KIP1. Constitutive expression of cyclin D1 circumvents the requirement for Ras signaling in cell proliferation, indicating that regulation of cyclin D1 is a critical target of the Ras signaling cascade.     

DNA tumor virus oncoproteins and retinoblastoma gene mutations share the ability to relieve the cell's requirement for cyclin D1 function in G1

The retinoblastoma gene product (pRB) participates in the regulation of the cell division cycle through complex formation with numerous cellular regulatory proteins including the potentially oncogenic cyclin D1. Extending the current view of the emerging functional interplay between pRB and D-type cyclins, we now report that cyclin D1 expression is positively regulated by pRB. Cyclin D1 mRNA and protein is specifically downregulated in cells expressing SV40 large T antigen, adenovirus E1A, and papillomavirus E7/E6 oncogene products and this effect requires intact RB-binding, CR2 domain of E1A. Exceptionally low expression of cyclin D1 is also seen in genetically RB-deficient cell lines, in which ectopically expressed wild-type pRB results in specific induction of this G1 cyclin. At the functional level, antibody-mediated cyclin D1 knockout experiments demonstrate that the cyclin D1 protein, normally required for G1 progression, is dispensable for passage through the cell cycle in cell lines whose pRB is inactivated through complex formation with T antigen, E1A, or E7 oncoproteins as well as in cells which have suffered loss-of-function mutations of the RB gene. The requirement for cyclin D1 function is not regained upon experimental elevation of cyclin D1 expression in cells with mutant RB, while reintroduction of wild-type RB into RB-deficient cells leads to restoration of the cyclin D1 checkpoint. These results strongly suggest that pRB serves as a major target of cyclin D1 whose cell cycle regulatory function becomes dispensable in cells lacking functional RB. Based on available data including this study, we propose a model for an autoregulatory feedback loop mechanism that regulates both the expression of the cyclin D1 gene and the activity of pRB, thereby contributing to a G1 phase checkpoint control in cycling mammalian cells.     

Hyperoxia Induces S-Phase Cell-Cycle Arrest and p21-Independent Cdk2 Inhibition in Human Carcinoma T47D-H3 Cells

Little is known about cell-cycle checkpoint activation by oxidative stress in mammalian cells. The effects of hyperoxia on cell-cycle progression were investigated in asynchronous human T47D-H3 cells, which contain mutated p53 and fail to arrest at G1/S in response to DNA damage. Hyperoxic exposure (95% O₂, 40–64 h) induced an S-phase arrest associated with acute inhibition of Cdk2 activity and DNA synthesis. In contrast, exit from G2/M was not inhibited in these cells. After 40 h of hyperoxia, these effects were partially reversible during recovery under normoxic conditions. The inhibition of Cdk2 activity was not due to degradation of Cdk2, cyclin E or A, nor impairment of Cdk2 complex formation with cyclin A or E and p21^Cip1. The loss of Cdk2 activity occurred in the absence of induction and recruitment of cdk inhibitor p21^Cip1 or p27^Kip1 in cyclin A/Cdk2 or cyclin E/Cdk2 complexes. In contrast, Cdk2 inhibition was associated with increased Cdk2-Tyr15 phosphorylation, increased E2F-1 recruitment, and decreased PCNA contents in Cdk2 complexes. The latter results indicate a p21^Cip1/p27^Kip1-independent mechanism of S-phase checkpoint activation in the hyperoxic T47D cell model investigated.     

Cdk2 knockout mice are viable

BACKGROUND: Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) and their cyclin regulatory subunits control cell growth and division. Cdk2/cyclin E complexes are thought to be required because they phosphorylate the retinoblastoma protein and drive cells through the G1/S transition into the S phase of the cell cycle. In addition, Cdk2 associates with cyclin A, which itself is essential for cell proliferation during early embryonic development. RESULTS: In order to study the functions of Cdk2 in vivo, we generated Cdk2 knockout mice. Surprisingly, these mice are viable, and therefore Cdk2 is not an essential gene in the mouse. However, Cdk2 is required for germ cell development; both male and female Cdk2(-/-) mice are sterile. Immunoprecipitates of cyclin E1 complexes from Cdk2(-/-) spleen extracts displayed no activity toward histone H1. Cyclin A2 complexes were active in primary mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), embryo extracts and in spleen extracts from young animals. In contrast, there was little cyclin A2 kinase activity in immortalized MEFs and spleen extracts from adult animals. Cdk2(-/-) MEFs proliferate but enter delayed into S phase. Ectopic expression of Cdk2 in Cdk2(-/-) MEFs rescued the delayed entry into S phase. CONCLUSIONS: Although Cdk2 is not an essential gene in the mouse, it is required for germ cell development and meiosis. Loss of Cdk2 affects the timing of S phase, suggesting that Cdk2 is involved in regulating progression through the mitotic cell cycle.     

Differential requirement of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 for oligodendrocyte progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation

ABSTRACT: Cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks) and their cyclin regulatory subunits control cell growth and division. Cdk2-cyclin E complexes, phosphorylating the retinoblastoma protein, drive cells through the G1/S transition into the S phase of the cell cycle. Despite its fundamental role, Cdk2 was found to be indispensable only in specific cell types due to molecular redundancies in its function. Converging studies highlight involvement of Cdk2 and associated cell cycle regulatory proteins in oligodendrocyte progenitor cell proliferation and differentiation. Giving the contribution of this immature cell type to brain plasticity and repair in the adult, this review will explore the requirement of Cdk2 for oligodendrogenesis, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells proliferation and differentiation during physiological and pathological conditions.     

Regulation of postembryonic G(1) cell cycle progression in Caenorhabditis elegans by a cyclin D/CDK-like complex.

In many organisms, initiation and progression through the G(1) phase of the cell cycle requires the activity of G(1)-specific cyclins (cyclin D and cyclin E) and their associated cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK2, CDK4, CDK6). We show here that the Caenorhabditis elegans genes cyd-1 and cdk-4, encoding proteins similar to cyclin D and its cognate cyclin-dependent kinases, respectively, are necessary for proper division of postembryonic blast cells. Animals deficient for cyd-1 and/or cdk-4 activity have behavioral and developmental defects that result from the inability of the postembryonic blast cells to escape G(1) cell cycle arrest. Moreover, ectopic expression of cyd-1 and cdk-4 in transgenic animals is sufficient to activate a S-phase reporter gene. We observe no embryonic defects associated with depletion of either of these two gene products, suggesting that their essential functions are restricted to postembryonic development. We propose that the cyd-1 and cdk-4 gene products are an integral part of the developmental control of larval cell proliferation through the regulation of G(1) progression.     

Cyclin D3 and c-MYC control glucocorticoid-induced cell cycle arrest but not apoptosis in lymphoblastic leukemia cells

Glucocorticoids (GC) induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in lymphoblastic leukemia cells. To investigate cell cycle effects of GC in the absence of obscuring apoptotic events, we used human CCRF-CEM leukemia cells protected from cell death by transgenic bcl-2. GC treatment arrested these cells in the G1 phase of the cell cycle due to repression of cyclin D3 and c-myc. Cyclin E and Cdk2 protein levels remained high, but the kinase complex was inactive due to increased levels of bound p27(Kip1). Conditional expression of cyclin D3 and/or c-myc was sufficient to prevent GC-induced G1 arrest and p27(Kip1) accumulation but, importantly, did not interfere with the induction of apoptosis. The combined data suggest that repression of both, c-myc and cyclin D3, is necessary to arrest human leukemia cells in the G1 phase of the cell division cycle, but that neither one is required for GC-induced apoptosis.     

Regulation of meiosis during mammalian spermatogenesis: the A-type cyclins and their associated cyclin-dependent kinases are differentially expressed in the germ-cell lineage

To begin to examine the function of the A-type cyclins during meiosis in the male, we have examined the developmental and cellular distribution of the cyclin A1 and cyclin A2 proteins, as well as their candidate cyclin-dependent kinase partners, Cdk1 and Cdk2, in the spermatogenic lineage. Immunohistochemical localization revealed that cyclin A1 is present only in male germ cells just prior to or during the first, but not the second, meiotic division. By contrast, cyclin A2 was expressed in spermatogonia and was most abundant in preleptotene spermatocytes, cells which will enter the meiotic pathway. Immunohistochemical detection of Cdk1 was most apparent in early pachytene spermatocytes, while staining intensity diminished in diplotene and meiotically dividing spermatocytes, the cells in which cyclin A1 expression was strongest. Cdk2 was highly expressed in all spermatocytes. Notably, in cells undergoing the meiotic reduction divisions, Cdk2 appeared to localize specifically to the chromatin. This was not the case for spermatogonia undergoing mitotic divisions. In the testis, cyclin A1 has been shown to bind both Cdk1 and Cdk2 but we show here that cyclin A2 binds only Cdk2. These results indicate that the A-type cyclins and their associated kinases have different functions in the initiation and passage of male germ cells through meiosis.     

The oncogenic activity of cyclin E is not confined to Cdk2 activation alone but relies on several other,distinct functions of the protein

We have previously shown that cyclin E can malignantly transform primary rat embryo fibroblasts in cooperation with constitutively active Ha-Ras. In addition, we demonstrated that high level cyclin E expression potentiates the development of methyl-nitroso-urea-induced T-cell lymphomas in mice. To further investigate the mechanism underlying cyclin E-mediated malignant transformation, we have performed a mutational analysis of cyclin E function. Here we show that cyclin E mutants defective to form an active kinase complex with Cdk2 are unable to drive cells from G(1) into S phase but can still malignantly transform rat embryo fibroblasts in cooperation with Ha-Ras. In addition, Cdk2 activation is not a prerequisite for the ability of cyclin E to rescue yeast triple cln mutations. We also find that the oncogenic properties of cyclin E did not entirely correspond with its ability to interact with the negative cell cycle regulator p27(Kip1) or the pocket protein p130. These findings suggest that the oncogenic activity of cyclin E does not exclusively rely on its ability as a positive regulator of G(1) progression. Rather, we propose that cyclin E harbors other functions, independent of Cdk2 activation and p27(Kip1) binding, that contribute significantly to its oncogenic activity.     

Periodic expression of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p57(Kip2) in trophoblast giant cells defines a G2-like gap phase of the endocycle

Endoreduplication is an unusual form of cell cycle in which rounds of DNA synthesis repeat in the absence of intervening mitoses. How G1/S cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) activity is regulated during the mammalian endocycle is poorly understood. We show here that expression of the G1/S Cdk inhibitor p57(Kip2) is induced coincidentally with the transition to the endocycle in trophoblast giant cells. Kip2 mRNA is constitutively expressed during subsequent endocycles, but the protein level fluctuates. In trophoblast giant cells synchronized for the first few endocycles, the p57(Kip2) protein accumulates only at the end of S-phase and then rapidly disappears a few hours before the onset of the next S-phase. The protein becomes stabilized by mutation of a C-terminal Cdk phosphorylation site. As a consequence, introduction of this stable form of p57(Kip2) into giant cells blocks S-phase entry. These data imply that p57(Kip2) is subject to phosphorylation-dependent turnover. Surprisingly, although this occurs in endoreduplicating giant cells, p57(Kip2) is stable when ectopically expressed in proliferating trophoblast cells, indicating that these cells lack the mechanism for protein targeting and/or degradation. These data show that the appearance of p57(Kip2) punctuates the completion of DNA replication, whereas its turnover is subsequently required to initiate the next round of endoreduplication in trophoblast giant cells. Cyclical expression of a Cdk inhibitor, by terminating G1/S Cdk activity, may help promote the resetting of DNA replication machinery.