Will northern fish populations be in hot water because of climate change?

Predicted increases in water temperature in response to climate change will have large implications for aquatic ecosystems, such as altering thermal habitat and potential range expansion of fish species. Warmwater fish species, such as smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu , may have access to additional favourable thermal habitat under increased surface-water temperatures, thereby shifting the northern limit of the distribution of the species further north in Canada and potentially negatively impacting native fish communities. We assembled a database of summer surface-water temperatures for over 13 000 lakes across Canada. The database consists of lakes with a variety of physical, chemical and biological properties. We used general linear models to develop a nation-wide maximum lake surface-water temperature model. The model was extended to predict surface-water temperatures suitable to smallmouth bass and under climate-change scenarios. Air temperature, latitude, longitude and sampling time were good predictors of present-day maximum surface-water temperature. We predicted lake surface-water temperatures for July 2100 using three climate-change scenarios. Water temperatures were predicted to increase by as much as 18 °C by 2100, with the greatest increase in northern Canada. Lakes with maximum surface-water temperatures suitable for smallmouth bass populations were spatially identified. Under several climate-change scenarios, we were able to identify lakes that will contain suitable thermal habitat and, therefore, are vulnerable to invasion by smallmouth bass in 2100. This included lakes in the Arctic that were predicted to have suitable thermal habitat by 2100.     

Quantifying the potential effects of climate change and the invasion of smallmouth bass on native lake trout populations across Canadian lakes

Climate change and invasive species are two stressors that should have large impacts on native species in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. We quantify and integrate the effects of climate change and the establishment of an invasive species (smallmouth bass Micropterus dolomieu ) on native lake trout Salvelinus namaycush populations. We assembled a dataset of almost 22 000 Canadian lakes that contained information on fish communities, lake morphologies, and geography. We examined the pelagic-benthic and littoral forage fish community available to lake trout populations across three lake size classes in these aquatic ecosystems. Due to the decreased presence of alternate prey resources, lake trout populations residing in smaller lakes are more vulnerable to the effects of smallmouth bass establishment. A detailed spatially and temporally explicit approach to assess smallmouth bass invasion risk in Ontario lakes suggests that the number of Ontario lakes with vulnerable lake trout populations could increase from 118 (~1%) to 1612 (~20%) by 2050 following projected climate warming. In addition, we identified nearly 9700 lake trout populations in Canada threatened by 2100, by the potential range expansion of smallmouth bass. Our study provides an integration of two major stressors of ecosystems, namely climate change and invasive species, by considering climate-change scenarios, dispersal rates of invasive species, and inter-specific biotic interactions.     

Adaptive rather than non-adaptive evolution of Mimulus guttatus in its invasive range

Adaptive and non-adaptive evolutionary processes are likely to play important roles in biological invasions but their relative importance has hardly ever been quantified. Moreover, although genetic differences between populations in their native versus invasive ranges may simply reflect different positions along a genetic latitudinal cline, this has rarely been controlled for. To study non-adaptive evolutionary processes in invasion of Mimulus guttatus, we used allozyme analyses on offspring of seven native populations from western North America, and three and four invasive populations from Scotland and New Zealand, respectively. To study quantitative genetic differentiation, we grew 2474 plants representing 17 native populations and the seven invasive populations in a common greenhouse environment under temporarily and permanently wet soil conditions. The absence of allozyme differentiation between the invasive and native range indicates that multiple genotypes had been introduced to Scotland and New Zealand, and suggests that founder effects and genetic drift played small, if any, roles in shaping genetic structure of invasive M. guttatus populations. Plants from the invasive and native range did not differ in phenology, floral traits and sexual and vegetative reproduction, and also not in plastic responses to the watering treatments. However, plants from the invasive range produced twice as many flower-bearing upright side branches than the ones from the native populations. Further, with increasing latitude of collection, vegetative reproduction of our experimental plants increased while sexual reproduction decreased. Plants from the invasive and native range shared these latitudinal clines. Because allozymes showed that the relatedness between native and invasive populations did not depend on latitude, this suggests that plants in the invasive regions have adapted to the local latitude. Overall, our study indicates that quantitative genetic variation of M. guttatus in its two invasive regions is shaped by adaptive evolutionary processes rather than by non-adaptive ones.     

Two in one: cryptic species discovered in biological control agent populations using molecular data and crossbreeding experiments

There are many examples of cryptic species that have been identified through DNA‐barcoding or other genetic techniques. There are, however, very few confirmations of cryptic species being reproductively isolated. This study presents one of the few cases of cryptic species that has been confirmed to be reproductively isolated and therefore true species according to the biological species concept. The cryptic species are of special interest because they were discovered within biological control agent populations. Two geographically isolated populations of Eccritotarsus catarinensis (Carvalho) [Hemiptera: Miridae], a biological control agent for the invasive aquatic macrophyte, water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms [Pontederiaceae], in South Africa, were sampled from the native range of the species in South America. Morphological characteristics indicated that both populations were the same species according to the current taxonomy, but subsequent DNA analysis and breeding experiments revealed that the two populations are reproductively isolated. Crossbreeding experiments resulted in very few hybrid offspring when individuals were forced to interbreed with individuals of the other population, and no hybrid offspring were recorded when a choice of mate from either population was offered. The data indicate that the two populations are cryptic species that are reproductively incompatible. Subtle but reliable diagnostic characteristics were then identified to distinguish between the two species which would have been considered intraspecific variation without the data from the genetics and interbreeding experiments. These findings suggest that all consignments of biological control agents from allopatric populations should be screened for cryptic species using genetic techniques and that the importation of multiple consignments of the same species for biological control should be conducted with caution.     

Biological responses to permafrost thaw slumping in Canadian Arctic lakes

1. Rapid environmental change occurring in high‐latitude regions has the potential to cause extensive thawing of permafrost. Retrogressive thaw slumps are a particularly spectacular form of permafrost degradation that can significantly impact lake–water chemistry; however, to date, the effects on aquatic biota have received little attention. 2. We used a diatom‐based palaeolimnological approach featuring a paired lake study design to examine the impact of thaw slumping on freshwater ecosystems in the low Arctic of western Canada. We compared biological responses in six lakes affected by permafrost degradation with six undisturbed, reference lakes. 3. Slump‐affected lakes exhibited greater biological change than the paired reference systems, although all systems have undergone ecologically significant changes over the last 200 years. Four of the six reference systems showed an increase in the relative abundance of planktonic algal taxa (diatoms and scaled chrysophytes), the earliest beginning about 1900, consistent with increased temperature trends in this region. 4. The response of sedimentary diatoms to thaw slumping was understandably variable, but primarily related to the intensity of disturbance and associated changes in aquatic habitat. Five of the slump‐affected lakes recorded increases in the abundance and diversity of periphytic diatoms at the presumed time of slump initiation, consistent with increased water clarity and subsequent development of aquatic macrophyte communities. Slump‐affected lakes generally displayed lower nutrient levels; however, in one system, thaw slumping, induced by an intense fire at the site in 1968, ostensibly led to pronounced nutrient enrichment that persists today. 5. Our results demonstrate that retrogressive thaw slumping represents an important stressor to the biological communities of lakes in the western Canadian Arctic and can result in a number of limnological changes. We also show that palaeolimnological methods are effective for inferring the timing and response of aquatic ecosystems to permafrost degradation. These findings provide the first long‐term perspective on the biological response to permafrost thaw, a stressor that will become increasingly important as northern landscapes respond to climate change.     

Interactions of temperature and photoperiod in the control of flowering of latitudinal and altitudinal populations of wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca)

Floral induction and development requirements of a range of latitudinal and altitudinal Norwegian populations of the wild strawberry Fragaria vesca L. have been studied in controlled environments. Rooted runner plants were exposed to a range of photoperiods and temperatures for 5 weeks for floral induction and then transferred to long day (LD) at 20°C for flower development. A pronounced interaction of temperature and photoperiod was shown in the control of flowering. At 9°C, flowers were initiated in both short day (SD) and LD conditions, at 15 and 18°C in SD only, whereas no initiation took place at 21°C regardless of daylength conditions. The critical photoperiod for SD floral induction was about 16 h and 14 h at 15 and 18°C, respectively, the induction being incomplete at 18°C. The optimal condition for floral induction was SD at 15°C. A minimum of 4 weeks of exposure to such optimal conditions was required. Although the populations varied significantly in their flowering performance, no clinal relationship was present between latitude of origin and critical photoperiod. Flower development of SD-induced plants was only marginally advanced by LD conditions, while inflorescence elongation and runnering were strongly enhanced by LD at this stage. The main shift in these responses took place at photoperiods between 16 and 17 h. Unlike all other populations studied, a high-latitude population from 70°N ('Alta') had an obligatory vernalization requirement. Although flowering and fruiting in its native Subarctic environment and after overwintering in the field in south Norway, this population did not flower in the laboratory in the absence of vernalization, even with 10 or 15 weeks of exposure to SD at 9°C. Flowering performance in the field likewise indicated a vernalization requirement of this high-latitude population.     

Indirect effects of introduced trout on Cascades frogs (Rana cascadae) via shared aquatic prey

1. The introduction of trout to montane lakes has negatively affected amphibian populations across the western United States. In northern California’s Klamath–Siskiyou Mountains, introduced trout have diminished the distribution and abundance of a native ranid frog, Rana (=Lithobates) cascadae. This is primarily thought to be the result of predation on frog larvae. However, if trout feed on larval aquatic insects that are available to R. cascadae only after emergence, then resource competition may also affect this declining native amphibian. 2. Stomach contents of R. cascadae were compared between lakes that contained trout and those from which introduced trout were removed. Total prey mass in stomach contents relative to frog body mass was not significantly different between lakes with fish and fish‐removal lakes, but in the former R. cascadae consumed a smaller proportion of adult aquatic insects. The stomach contents of fish included larvae of aquatic insects that are, as adults, eaten by R. cascadae. 3. Rana cascadae consumed fewer caddisflies (Trichoptera) and more grasshoppers (Orthoptera) at lakes with higher densities of fish. At lakes with greater aquatic habitat complexity, R. cascadae consumed more water striders (Hemiptera: Gerridae) and terrestrial spiders (Araneae). 4. We suggest that reductions in the availability of emerging aquatic insects cause R. cascadae to consume more terrestrial prey where trout are present. Thus, introduced trout may influence native amphibians directly through predation and, indirectly, through pre‐emptive resource competition.     

Is there rapid evolutionary response in introduced populations of tansy ragwort, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Jacobaea vulgaris</Emphasis>, when exposed to biological control?

Differences in the herbivore community between a plant’s native (specialists and generalists) and introduced range (almost exclusively generalists) may lead to the evolution of reduced allocation to defences against specialist herbivores in the introduced range, allowing for increased allocation to competitive ability and to defences against generalist herbivores. Following this logic, the introduction of biological control agents should reverse this evolutionary shift and select for plants with life-history traits that are more similar to those of plants in the native range than those of plants in the introduced range that have not been exposed to biological control. In a common garden experiment, we compared performance and resistance traits of tansy ragwort, Jacobaea vulgaris, among populations from the introduced range (New Zealand and North America) that have either been exposed to or grown free from the biological control agent Longitarsus jacobaeae. For comparison, we included populations from the native European range. We found lower levels of generalist-deterrent pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) and of soluble phenolics in New Zealand populations with than in populations without exposure to L. jacobaeae, while the opposite pattern was detected among North American populations. Contrary to expectation, populations with exposure to L. jacobaeae revealed more feeding damage by L. jacobaeae than populations without exposure. Introduced populations had higher levels of PAs and reproductive output than native J. vulgaris populations. Jacobaea vulgaris was introduced in different parts of the world some 100–130 years ago, while L. jacobaeae was introduced only some 20–40 years ago. Hence, the larger differences observed between native and introduced populations, as compared to introduced populations with and without biological control history, may result from different time scales available for selection to act.     

Aquatic plants as environmental indicators of ecological condition in New Zealand lakes

Submerged aquatic plants can act as measurable indicators of ecological conditions occurring within a lake, and they need only be monitored once a year or even less. Historically in New Zealand there has been a reliance on water quality sampling for monitoring the health of lakes and these methods can be complex and costly involving multiple site visits and chemical analysis of water samples. As a result, lake monitoring has been irregular, or not done at all. LakeSPI or ‘Lake Submerged Plant Indicators’ is a new management tool that uses aquatic plants to monitor and assess ecological condition in a wide range of lake types. The method generates three indices: a Native Condition Index (extent and diversity of native plants) and an Invasive Condition Index (extent and impact of alien weeds), which are generated from scores allocated to carefully selected vegetation features; and an integrated LakeSPI Index which is largely derived from components of the other two indices and provides an overall indication of lake ecological condition. The LakeSPI method can be used to assess the status of lakes and monitor trends occurring within them, and it is expected that the use of LakeSPI will facilitate regular monitoring and reporting on a much wider range of lakes than has been possible using traditional water quality methods. By utilizing submerged aquatic plants the method focuses on lake littoral margins where there is greatest public interaction and interest.     

Comparative biology and management of Arctic and European grayling (Salmonidae,Thymallus)

Summary The biological and ecological features of Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) relevant to its management and enhancement are reviewed over its range in North America as well as in Asia, and are compared with those for the European grayling (Thymallus thymallus). Populations of both species have declined in some areas where angling pressure has been severe and where major alterations of their habitats have occurred. But native populations of Arctic grayling have been extirpated in eastern parts of its North American range, and nearly so in south-western parts, whereas the range of European grayling has been extended, especially in the United Kingdom and in Finland, by introduction. Furthermore, in contrast to the Arctic grayling, the European grayling, in Scandinavia at least, seems to have been less severely affected by impoundment of rivers and lakes for hydroelectric generation, perhaps because it has been able to successfully reproduce in large rivers below dams, especially those where fluctuation in water level is small.The success of various grayling management and enhancement practices, including hatchery culture and stocking, angling restrictions, spawning and rearing facilities, competitor and predator control, stream habitat restoration, lake and stream fertilization, and invertebrate prey introduction, are evaluated and compared for both species.     

Predicting introduction, establishment and potential impacts of smallmouth bass

Aim The introduction of non‐indigenous species has resulted in wide‐ranging ecological and economic impacts. Predictive modelling of the introduction and establishment of non‐indigenous species is imperative to identify areas at high risk of invasion to effectively manage non‐indigenous species and conserve native populations. Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), a warm water fish species native to central North America has negatively impacted native fish communities, including cyprinids and salmonid populations, as a result of intentional introductions. We predicted the introduction risk; species establishment based on habitat suitability; identified lakes at high risk of invasion; and finally assessed the consequential impacts on native salmon, trout and cyprinid populations. Location Ontario and British Columbia, Canada. Methods Classification tree and logistic regression models were developed and validated to predict the introduction and establishment of smallmouth bass for thousands of lakes. Results Densely human populated areas and larger lake surface areas successfully identify lakes associated with the introduction of smallmouth bass (introduction model) in British Columbia. Climate, lake morphology and water chemistry variables were the driving environmental parameters to define suitable smallmouth bass habitat (establishment model). A combination of the introduction and establishment model identified 138 lakes that are currently at risk in British Columbia to the introduction and establishment of smallmouth bass. Of these 138 high‐risk lakes, 95% of them contain at least one species of salmon, trout or cyprinid, thereby increasing the potential impact of an invasion by smallmouth bass. Main conclusions Our framework can be applied to other terrestrial and aquatic species to obtain a better understanding of the potential risk posed by a non‐indigenous species to an ecosystem. Furthermore, our methodology can be used to focus management efforts on areas at higher risk (e.g. number of potential releases, more favourable habitats) to control future introductions of non‐indigenous species, thereby conserving native populations.     

入侵植物凤眼莲研究现状及存在的问题

 凤眼莲(Eichhornia crassipes)原产南美洲,被列为世界十大恶性杂草之一,现已入侵了非洲、亚洲、北美洲、大洋州、甚至欧洲等5个大洲,至少62个国家和地区都受到了凤眼莲入侵的危害。凤眼莲的入侵已经引起了一系列的生态、经济、社会问题：首先,它改变了当地水体生态系统的物理、化学环境,进而影响水体生态系统的生物多样性,破坏食物链、物质循环等生态过程的正常运行;其次,凤眼莲造成当地经济的重大损失,航运、渔业、水利等都受到了危害;再次,凤眼莲的入侵爆发也对当地居民饮水、健康等造成威胁。目前,对于凤眼莲的控制及其治理主要有物理的、化学的、以及生物的等3种方法。利用天敌、病菌、以及化感作用等的生物控制被许多专家和学者推崇,同时,利用生物控制凤眼莲入侵也日益成为研究的热点。但是,综合目前对于凤眼莲的认识和研究,仍然具有片面性,需要从生物特性、种群生态、生态系统等方面深入研究凤眼莲入侵机制。而利用生物控制凤眼莲的研究和技术尚不完善,需要进行种间竞争、捕食及遗传变异等方面的探讨和研究。通过总结控制凤眼莲各种方法的长处和不足,最后指出利用生物的方法,并结合污水治理、水系宏观调控及监测等方法,综合治理凤眼莲,是十分必要的,而且也是最具有前景的。     

Invasion of Lepidium draba (Brassicaceae) in the western United States: distributions and origins of chloroplast DNA haplotypes

Advances in phylogeography are of great value for understanding the population structure and origins of invasive genotypes. Such insights provide constructive information for current or future biological control research efforts. In this study, we investigated a highly variable chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) marker for populations of the weed Lepidium draba (Brassicaceae) in its native Eurasian and invasive US ranges. We sequenced DNA from 684 individuals from Eurasia and the US and found 41 different haplotypes. Our comparative study between the native and invasive ranges showed a 33% reduction in allelic richness (A) and a 7% reduction in haplotype diversity (h) since introduction into the US. Most genetic variation in the native range was observed within geographical regions and populations, not between regions, and this result was similar for the invasive range. Assignment tests indicated the most likely origins of many invasive haplotypes. Some of these occurred in western Europe, supporting an expanded native range that had been proposed for the species. Exact locations were identified for a diverse set of invasive haplotypes which can be used in ongoing host-specificity tests of potential biological control agents.     

The origins of global invasions of the German wasp (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vespula germanica</Emphasis>) and its infection with four honey bee viruses

A successful control or eradication programme using biological control or genetically-mediated methods requires knowledge of the origin and the extent of wasp genetic diversity. Mitochondrial DNA variation in the native and invaded range of the social wasp Vespula germanica was used to examine intra-specific genetic variation and invasive source populations. We also examined wasps for the presence of four viruses found in honey bees: Acute bee paralysis virus, Deformed wing virus, Israeli acute paralysis virus and Kashmir bee virus. German wasps showed reduced genetic diversity in the invaded range compared to that of their native range. Populations in the introduced range are likely to have arrived from different source populations. All four viral honey bee pathogens were found in V. germanica, although they varied in their distribution and strain. Multiple introductions of German wasps have occurred for most invaded regions, though some populations are genetically homogenous. The differing locations of origin will guide researchers searching for biocontrol agents and the reduced genetic diversity may make these wasps a potentially viable target for control via gene drives.     

Response of benthic macroinvertebrates to whole-lake, non-native fish treatments in mid-elevation lakes of the Trinity Alps, California

Introduced fish reduce the abundance and diversity of native aquatic fauna, but the effect can be reduced in complex habitats. We manipulated fish populations in forested mountain lakes to determine whether or not fish affected benthic macroinvertebrate composition across lakes with differing habitat complexity. We compared abundance, biomass, body-length, and community structure of benthic macroinvertebrates from 16 lakes with three treatments (fish stocked, suspended stocking, fish removed) and unstocked fishless “controls”. Over 4 years, we assessed the relative importance of fish and environmental variables influencing the composition of benthic macroinvertebrates. Control lakes had the greatest overall abundance of macroinvertebrates when chironomid midges were excluded. Abundances of insects in the clinger/swimmer functional group and caddisflies were greatest in the control lakes but were primarily influenced by habitat variables including the availability of aquatic vegetation and wood. Total biomass and mean body length of macroinvertebrates were not affected by treatment. Taxon richness of macroinvertebrates was about 40% greater in the control lakes compared to the treatment lakes but did not differ among treatments. Our results suggest that fish reduce susceptible macroinvertebrate richness and abundances, but that changes associated with alterations of fish composition are confounded by other factors in complex lake habitats.     

The moss mites of Yes Tor, Dartmoor, Devon (Acari: Oribatida) and their evolutionary significance

A species list of oribatid mites collected from the summit of Yes Tor, Dartmoor, is given, together with notes on their distribution. Yes Tor lies south of latitude 51° in that part of Britain which remained ice free during the Pleistocene. The species found on Yes Tor are compared with the species recorded from the summits of 11 mountains lying north of latitude 53°, which were all ice-covered at the period of maximum glaciation. In the case of Yes Tor and these 11 northern montane sites, three similar faunal elements have been identified arctic-alpine species, European-alpine species and a group of British montane species that are also common in the lowlands. The view is advanced that the similarity of the montane oribatid fauna of Yes Tor with that of the mountains to the north of latitude 53° has resulted from the probable movements of the mites during Quaternary and postglacial times over an area extending from the Arctic Circle to the Mediterranean. It is suggested that these movements, while being largely spontaneous, have also been aided by transportation agents, both physical and biological.     

Native insects as targets and non-target species of biological control

The use of population models for predicting desirable and undesirable outcomes of biological control are described using three case studies from New Zealand. The first reviews the models of Barlow and colleagues used to understand and improve the control of native grass grub Costelytra zealandica populations by augmentative application of pathogenic Serratia entomophila bacteria. A variety of modelling approaches have been used to predict grass grub outbreaks and thus the cost-effectiveness of applying bacteria. Models have also been developed to understand the competitive interactions between pathogenic and non-pathogenic forms of the bacteria. The other two case studies show how retrospective modelling has been used to quantify the non-target impact of introduced biological control agents. The parasitoid Microctonus aethiopoides was introduced to control the lucerne pest Sitona discoideus, but was found to disperse outside of the target habitat and attack several native weevil species in the Entiminae family. Retrospective modelling suggests that, given average parasitism levels of 15%, native Irenimus spp. and Nicaeana spp. weevil populations are likely to have been reduced by 8% due to non-target parasitism. Similarly, population models have shown that native red admiral butterfly (Bassaris gonerilla) populations are likely to have been reduced by 5% due to non- target parasitism by Pteromalus puparum, which was introduced to New Zealand for the control of the cabbage white butterfly (Pieris rapae).     

Geographical variation in egg cold hardiness: a study on the adaptation strategies of the migratory locust Locusta migratoria L.

Abstract. 1. For many species of insect, cold hardiness is an important trait that enables a population to develop in the next season and to extend its range. To elucidate the role of cold hardiness of the migratory locust Locusta migratoria L. in its outbreak and distribution areas, egg cold hardiness was examined in locusts derived from four locations from latitude 18°23'N to latitude 41°10'N in eastern China.
2. The supercooling points of eggs from different geographic populations did not differ significantly for the first development stage, with an average ± SE of −24.5 ± 0.51 °C, or for the second stage, −22.06 ± 0.68 °C, however there was a significant difference for the embryonic development phase among the four geographical populations. The egg supercooling point increased gradually from neonatal egg to old egg; eggs prior to hatching always had a much higher supercooling point.
3. Comparisons of the cold hardiness of four populations were carried out by validating the close correlation between latitude and the effects of cold on hatching, low lethal temperature (Ltemp₅₀), and low lethal time (Ltime₅₀). There were significant differences among the four populations; the northern population was more cold hardy than the southern population, and the two mid-latitude populations were intermediately cold hardy.
4. The cold hardiness of all populations was enhanced to various degrees by short-term cold acclimation at 0 °C and 5 °C. For most populations, a 2-day acclimation period seemed to be optimal.     

Potential for biological control of native competing vegetation using native herbivores

1 The use of native natural enemies to combat native pests has received proportionately less consideration than other viable approaches to biological control. Successful attempts at augmentation, conservation, preservation, and enhancement of the effectiveness of natural enemies have been limited. 2 However, this approach to biological control should be re-examined, placing emphasis on intentional manipulation of population dynamics to encourage the natural tendencies of populations to grow in the absence (or during the delay in resurgence) of certain regulating forces. 3 We discuss theoretical and empirical evidence that suggests native herbivorous insects have the potential to be manipulated successfully as biological control agents for native competing vegetation.     

中国的白唇鹿(CERVUS ALBIROSTRIS)

白唇鹿(Cervus albirostris)是中国特有珍贵资源动物。由于其生活在人迹罕至的高寒地区,故自1883年被分类记载以来,至今还未见有关此种兽类的详细研究报道。今就作者调查作一些补充报道。 白唇鹿分布于海拔3,500米以上的高山灌丛带,其活动上限可达5,100米甚至更高的高山裸岩带。在它们的分布区,虽然有高山峻岭连绵不断,但它们总是选择较平缓、稍开阔的地方活动、休息,在那些地势险峻、切割剧烈的悬岩绝壁区域,极少见到白唇鹿的踪迹。