Human papillomavirus type 5 E6 oncoprotein represses the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway by binding to SMAD3

Mechanisms of cellular transformation associated with human papillomavirus type 5 (HPV5), which is responsible for skin carcinomas in epidermodysplasia verruciformis (EV) patients, are poorly understood. Using a yeast two-hybrid screening and molecular and cellular biology experiments, we found that HPV5 oncoprotein E6 interacts with SMAD3, a key component in the transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1) signaling pathway. HPV5 E6 inhibits SMAD3 transactivation by destabilizing the SMAD3/SMAD4 complex and inducing the degradation of both proteins. Interestingly, the E6 protein of nononcogenic EV HPV9 failed to interact with SMAD3, suggesting that downregulation of the TGF-beta1 signaling pathway could be a determinant in HPV5 skin carcinogenesis.     

Human papillomavirus type 16 E7 oncoprotein binds and inactivates growth-inhibitory insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3

The E7 protein encoded by human papillomavirus type 16 is one of the few viral genes that can immortalize primary human cells and thereby override cellular senescence. While it is generally assumed that this property of E7 depends on its interaction with regulators of the cell cycle, we show here that E7 targets insulin-like growth factor binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3), the product of a p53-inducible gene that is overexpressed in senescent cells. IGFBP-3 can suppress cell proliferation and induce apoptosis; we show here that IGFBP-3-mediated apoptosis is inhibited by E7, which binds to IGFBP-3 and triggers its proteolytic cleavage. Two transformation-deficient mutants of E7 failed to inactivate IGFBP-3, suggesting that inactivation of IGFBP-3 may contribute to cell transformation.     

PATJ, a tight junction-associated PDZ protein, is a novel degradation target of high-risk human papillomavirus E6 and the alternatively spliced isoform 18 E6

The E6 protein from high-risk human papillomavirus types interacts with and degrades several PDZ domain-containing proteins that localize to adherens junctions or tight junctions in polarized epithelial cells. We have identified the tight junction-associated multi-PDZ protein PATJ (PALS1-associated TJ protein) as a novel binding partner and degradation target of high-risk types 16 and 18 E6. PATJ functions in the assembly of the evolutionarily conserved CRB-PALS1-PATJ and Par6-aPKC-Par3 complexes and is critical for the formation of tight junctions in polarized cells. The ability of type 18 E6 full-length to bind to, and the subsequent degradation of, PATJ is dependent on its C-terminal PDZ binding motif. We demonstrate that the spliced 18 E6* protein, which lacks a C-terminal PDZ binding motif, associates with and degrades PATJ independently of full-length 18 E6. Thus, PATJ is the first binding partner that is degraded in response to both isoforms of 18 E6. The ability of E6 to utilize a non-E6AP ubiquitin ligase for the degradation of several PDZ binding partners has been suggested. We also demonstrate that 18 E6-mediated degradation of PATJ is not inhibited in cells where E6AP is silenced by shRNA. This suggests that the E6-E6AP complex is not required for the degradation of this protein target.     

Stimulation by insulin-like growth factors is required for cellular transformation by type beta transforming growth factor

Medium conditioned by BRL-3A cells, a known source of insulin-like growth factor II (IGF-II), induced phenotypic transformation (anchorage-independent proliferation) of mouse BALB/c 3T3 fibroblasts but not rat NRK-49F fibroblasts, in the presence of 10% calf serum. A specific radioreceptor assay and a bioassay indicated that BRL-3A conditioned medium contained 0.5-1 ng/ml of type beta transforming growth factor (beta TGF). Purified IGF-II and beta TGF acting together reconstituted the transforming activity of BRL-3A conditioned medium on BALB/c 3T3 cells. Insulin was 5-10% as potent as IGF-II in supporting the transforming action of beta TGF on BALB/c 3T3 cells. NRK-49F cells were phenotypically transformed by beta TGF in the presence of EGF and 10% calf serum as the sole source of IGFs. However, transformation of NRK-49F cells under these conditions was inhibited by addition of purified IGF-binding protein. Addition of an excess of IGF-II prevented the inhibitory action of IGF-binding protein. The different sensitivity of the two cell lines to IGFs was correlated with lower levels of type I IGF receptor and higher levels of type II IGF receptor in NRK-49F cells as compared with BALB/c 3T3 cells. The results suggest that cellular stimulation by IGFs is a prerequisite for transformation of rodent fibroblasts by beta TGF. We propose that transformation of fibroblasts by beta TGF requires concomitant stimulation by the set of growth factors that support normal cell proliferation.     

Functional roles for the cytoplasmic domain of the type III transforming growth factor beta receptor in regulating transforming growth factor beta signaling

Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) signals through three high affinity cell surface receptors, TGF-beta type I, type II, and type III receptors. The type III receptor, also known as betaglycan, binds to the type II receptor and is thought to act solely by "presenting" the TGF-beta ligand to the type II receptor. The short cytoplasmic domain of the type III receptor is thought to have no role in TGF-beta signaling because deletion of this domain has no effect on association with the type II receptor, or with the presentation role of the type III receptor. Here we demonstrate that the cytoplasmic domains of the type III and type II receptors interact specifically in a manner dependent on the kinase activity of the type II receptor and the ability of the type II receptor to autophosphorylate. This interaction results in the phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain of the type III receptor by the type II receptor. The type III receptor with the cytoplasmic domain deleted is able to bind TGF-beta, to bind the type II receptor, and to enhance TGF-beta binding to the type II receptor but is unable to enhance TGF-beta2 signaling, determining that the cytoplasmic domain is essential for some functions of the type III receptor. The type III receptor functions by selectively binding the autophosphorylated type II receptor via its cytoplasmic domain, thus promoting the preferential formation of a complex between the autophosphorylated type II receptor and the type I receptor and then dissociating from this active signaling complex. These studies, for the first time, elucidate important functional roles of the cytoplasmic domain of the type III receptor and demonstrate that these roles are essential for regulating TGF-beta signaling.     

E6AP-dependent degradation of DLG4/PSD95 by high-risk human papillomavirus type 18 E6 protein

In most cervical cancers, DNAs of high-risk mucosotropic human papillomaviruses (HPVs), such as types 16 and 18, are maintained so as to express two viral proteins, E6 and E7, suggesting that they play important roles in carcinogenesis. The carboxy-terminal PDZ domain-binding motif of the E6 proteins is in fact essential for transformation of rodent cells and induction of hyperplasia in E6-transgenic mouse skin. To date, seven PDZ domain-containing proteins, including DLG1/hDLG, which is a human homologue of the Drosophila discs large tumor suppressor (Dlg), have been identified as targets of high-risk HPV E6 proteins. Here, we describe DLG4/PSD95, another human homologue of Dlg, as a novel E6 target. DLG4 was found to be expressed in normal human cells, including cervical keratinocytes, but only to a limited extent in both HPV-positive and HPV-negative cervical cancer cell lines. Expression of HPV18 E6 in HCK1T decreased DLG4 levels more strongly than did HPV16 E6, the carboxy-terminal motif of the proteins being critical for binding and degradation of DLG4 in vitro. DLG4 levels were restored by expression of either E6AP-specific short hairpin RNA or bovine papillomavirus type 1 E2 in HeLa but not CaSki or SiHa cells, reflecting downregulation of DLG4 mRNA as opposed to protein by an HPV-independent mechanism in HPV16-positive cancer lines. The tumorigenicity of CaSki cells was strongly inhibited by forced expression of DLG4, while growth in culture was not inhibited at all. These results suggest that DLG4 may function as a tumor suppressor in the development of HPV-associated cancers.     

The PDZ protein TIP-1 interacts with the Rho effector rhotekin and is involved in Rho signaling to the serum response element

The human T-cell lymphotrophic virus, type 1 Tax protein can interact via its C terminus with various proteins including a PDZ domain. In this work, one of them, TIP-1, is characterized as a cytoplasmic 14-kDa protein mainly corresponding to one PDZ domain. A two-hybrid screen performed with TIP-1 as bait showed that it interacts with the human homologue of rhotekin that was previously identified in mice as a Rho effector. Both human and mouse rhotekins exhibit at their C termini the sequence QSPV-COOH that matches the X(S/T)XV-COOH consensus known for proteins recognizing PDZ domains. Mutation of the serine and valine residues to alanine impairs interaction of rhotekin with TIP-1. Transient expression experiments with a reporter construct including the c-Fos serum response element (SRE) showed that coexpression of TIP-1 with the constitutively active RhoA.V14 mutant and human rhotekin caused a strong activation of the SRE. A negative mutant of Rho, RhoA.N19, was unable to cooperate with TIP-1 and rhotekin. The positive effect of TIP-1 was also lost when the C terminus of rhotekin was mutated. These data show that the complex of active Rho with its effector rhotekin bound to TIP-1 produces in the cytoplasm a signal that triggers strong activation of the SRE.     

Structure and properties of the cellular receptor for transforming growth factor type beta

Swiss 3T3 cells respond to picomolar concentrations of type beta transforming growth factor (TGF-beta) with a dose-dependent increase in the formation of colonies in soft agar, a decrease in the growth of cells in monolayer culture, and changes in morphology. This indicates that these cells have functional TGF-beta receptors able to mediate a biological response. Binding analysis revealed a single class of TGF-beta binding sites (80 000 per cell) with a Kd approximately 50 pM. Receptors were affinity-labeled by covalent attachment to 125I-TGF-beta with bis(sulfosuccinimidyl) suberate (BS3). The complexes formed were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in the presence of 100 mM dithiothreitol and migrated as Mr approximately 180 000 complexes in 3-10% linear gradient gels. The apparent size of these complexes was larger in gels with a higher percentage of acrylamide. The labeling of the 125I-TGF-beta-receptor complexes was inhibited by the presence of excess unlabeled TGF-beta but was unaffected by other growth factors. These complexes could be formed by cross-linking whole cells, intact membranes, or solubilized membranes, demonstrating that the TGF-beta receptor is located on the plasma membrane and can be solubilized without destruction of its ability to bind TGF-beta. A larger Mr approximately 360 000 complex was present in 3-10% linear gradient gels without reduction or after extensive cross-linking, suggesting that the receptor consists of two subunits of similar size attached by disulfide bonds. Since BS3 is membrane-impermeable, at least a portion of both subunits is located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

E6 and E7 from human papillomavirus type 16 cooperate to target the PDZ protein Na/H exchange regulatory factor 1

Previous studies have shown that the PDZ-binding motif of the E6 oncoprotein from the mucosal high-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) types plays a key role in HPV-mediated cellular transformation in in vitro and in vivo experimental models. HR HPV E6 oncoproteins have the ability to efficiently degrade members of the PDZ motif-containing membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) family; however, it is possible that other PDZ proteins are also targeted by E6. Here, we describe a novel interaction of HPV type 16 (HPV16) E6 with a PDZ protein, Na(+)/H(+) exchange regulatory factor 1 (NHERF-1), which is involved in a number of cellular processes, including signaling and transformation. HPV16 E6 associates with and promotes the degradation of NHERF-1, and this property is dependent on the C-terminal PDZ-binding motif of E6. Interestingly, HPV16 E7, via the activation of the cyclin-dependent kinase complexes, promoted the accumulation of a phosphorylated form of NHERF-1, which is preferentially targeted by E6. Thus, both oncoproteins appear to cooperate in targeting NHERF-1. Notably, HPV18 E6 is not able to induce NHERF-1 degradation, indicating that this property is not shared with E6 from all HR HPV types. Downregulation of NHERF-1 protein levels was also observed in HPV16-positive cervical cancer-derived cell lines, such as SiHa and CaSki, as well as HPV16-positive cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN). Finally, our data show that HPV16-mediated NHERF-1 degradation correlates with the activation of the phosphatidylinositol-3'-OH kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathway, which is known to play a key role in carcinogenesis.     

The PDZ ligand domain of the human papillomavirus type 16 E6 protein is required for E6's induction of epithelial hyperplasia in vivo

Human papillomaviruses (HPVs) are the causative agent of warts. Infections with high-risk HPVs are associated with anogenital and head and neck cancers. One of the viral genes responsible for HPV's oncogenic activity is E6. Mice expressing the HPV-16 E6 protein in their epidermis (K14E6(WT)) develop epithelial hyperplasia and squamous carcinomas. Numerous cellular proteins interact with E6, some of which can be grouped based on common amino acid motifs in their E6-binding domains. One such group, the PDZ partners, including hDLG, hSCRIBBLE, MUPP1, and MAGI, bind to the carboxy-terminal four amino acids of E6 through their PDZ domains. E6's interaction with the PDZ partners leads to their degradation. Additionally, E6's binding to PDZ proteins has been correlated with its ability to transform baby rat kidney cells in tissue culture and to confer tumorigenicity onto cells in xenograft experiments. To address whether the ability of E6 to bind PDZ domain partners is necessary for E6 to confer epithelial hyperproliferation in vivo, we generated transgenic mice that express in stratified squamous epithelia a mutant of E6 lacking the last six amino acids at its carboxyl terminus, E6(Delta 146-151), from the human keratin 14 (K14) promoter. The K14E6(Delta 146-151) mice exhibit a radiation response similar to that of the K14E6(WT) mice, demonstrating that this protein, as predicted, retains an ability to inactivate p53. However, the K14E6(Delta 146-151) mice fail to display epithelial hyperplasia. These results indicate that an interaction of E6 with PDZ partners is necessary for its induction of epithelial hyperplasia.     

Multi-PDZ domain protein MUPP1 is a cellular target for both adenovirus E4-ORF1 and high-risk papillomavirus type 18 E6 oncoproteins

A general theme that has emerged from studies of DNA tumor viruses is that otherwise unrelated oncoproteins encoded by these viruses often target the same important cellular factors. Major oncogenic determinants for human adenovirus type 9 (Ad9) and high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) are the E4-ORF1 and E6 oncoproteins, respectively, and although otherwise unrelated, both of these viral proteins possess a functional PDZ domain-binding motif that is essential for their transforming activity and for binding to the PDZ domain-containing and putative tumor suppressor protein DLG. We report here that the PDZ domain-binding motifs of Ad9 E4-ORF1 and high-risk HPV-18 E6 also mediate binding to the widely expressed cellular factor MUPP1, a large multi-PDZ domain protein predicted to function as an adapter in signal transduction. With regard to the consequences of these interactions in cells, we showed that Ad9 E4-ORF1 aberrantly sequesters MUPP1 within the cytoplasm of cells whereas HPV-18 E6 targets this cellular protein for degradation. These effects were specific because mutant viral proteins unable to bind MUPP1 lack these activities. From these results, we propose that the multi-PDZ domain protein MUPP1 is involved in negatively regulating cellular proliferation and that the transforming activities of two different viral oncoproteins depend, in part, on their ability to inactivate this cellular factor.     

The bovine papillomavirus type 1 E5 transforming protein specifically binds and activates the beta-type receptor for the platelet-derived growth factor but not other related tyrosine kinase-containing receptors to induce cellular transformation.

The 44-amino-acid E5 protein of bovine papillomavirus type 1 is a highly hydrophobic protein which appears to transform cells through the activation of growth factor receptors. To investigate the specificity of E5-growth factor receptor interactions required for mitogenic signaling, we utilized a nontumorigenic, murine myeloid cell line (32D) which is strictly dependent on interleukin-3 (IL-3) for sustained proliferation in culture. This IL-3 dependence can be functionally substituted by the expression of a variety of surrogate growth factor receptors and the addition of the corresponding ligand. Several receptor cDNAs for the alpha- and beta-type platelet-derived growth factor receptors [alpha PDGFR and beta PDGFR], the epidermal growth factor receptor, and the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor) were transfected into 32D cells constitutively expressing the E5 protein to test for IL-3-independent growth. Only beta PDGFR was capable of abrogating the IL-3 dependence of 32D cells. The proliferative signal induced by the coexpression of beta PDGFR and E5 was accompanied by stable complex formation between these proteins, constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation of the receptor, and tumorigenicity in nude mice. The lack of cooperative interaction between E5 and the epidermal growth factor receptor, the colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor, and the highly related alpha PDGFR was paralleled by the inability of E5 to bind to these receptors and failure to increase receptor tyrosine phosphorylation. Thus, these data indicate that the ability of E5 to induce sustained proliferation and transformation of 32D cells is a direct consequence of specific interaction between the E5 protein and the beta PDGFR signaling complex and the subsequent stimulation of receptor tyrosine phosphorylation.     

Human papillomavirus type 18 E1 protein is translated from polycistronic mRNA by a discontinuous scanning mechanism

Papillomaviruses are small double-stranded DNA viruses that replicate episomally in the nuclei of infected cells. The full-length E1 protein of papillomaviruses is required for the replication of viral DNA. The viral mRNA from which the human papillomavirus type 18 E1 protein is expressed is not known. We demonstrate that in eukaryotic cells, the E1 protein is expressed from polycistronic mRNA containing E6, E7, and E1 open reading frames (ORFs). The translation of adjacent E7 and E1 ORFs is not associated; it is performed by separate populations of ribosomes. The translation of the downstream E1 gene is preceded by ribosome scanning. Scanning happens at least at the 5' end of the polycistronic mRNA and also approximately 100 bp in front of the E1 gene. Long areas in middle of the mRNA are bypassed by ribosomes, possibly by ribosomal "shunting." Inactivation of short minicistrons in the upstream area of the E1 gene did not change the expression level of the E1 gene.     

Activation of the platelet-derived growth factor receptor by the bovine papillomavirus E5 transforming protein.

The bovine papillomavirus E5 gene encodes a 44 amino acid membrane-associated protein that can induce tumorigenic transformation of rodent fibroblast cell lines. Genetic studies suggest that the E5 protein may transform cells by influencing the activity of cellular proteins involved in growth regulation. We report here that the endogenous cellular beta type receptor for the platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is constitutively activated in C127 and FR3T3 cells stably transformed by the E5 protein, but not in these cell types transformed by a variety of other oncogenes. In C127 cells, a metabolic precursor as well as the mature form of the receptor is activated by E5 transformation. Activation of the receptor also occurs upon acute E5-mediated transformation of these cells and precedes mitogenic stimulation in this system. Moreover, activation of the receptor by addition of PDGF or the v-sis gene to untransformed cells is sufficient to induce DNA synthesis and stable growth transformation. We propose that the PDGF receptor is an important cellular intermediate in the transforming activity of the bovine papillomavirus E5 protein. There is a short region of sequence similarity between the fibropapillomavirus E5 proteins and PDGF, suggesting that the E5 proteins may activate the PDGF receptor by binding directly to it.     

Human papillomavirus type 16 E6-induced degradation of E6TP1 correlates with its ability to immortalize human mammary epithelial cells

Recent analyses have identified a number of binding partners for E6, including E6AP, ERC55, paxillin, hDlg, p300, interferon regulatory factor 3, hMCM7, Bak, and E6TP1. Notably, association with E6 targets p53, E6TP1, myc, hMCM7, and Bak for degradation. However, the relative importance of the various E6 targets in cellular transformation remains unclear. E6 alone can dominantly immortalize normal human mammary epithelial cells (MECs), permitting an assessment of the importance of various E6 targets in cellular transformation. Studies in this system indicate that E6-induced degradation of p53 and E6 binding to ERC55 or hDlg do not correlate with efficient immortalization. Here, we have examined the role of E6TP1, a Rap GTPase-activating protein, in E6-induced immortalization of MECs. We tested a large set of human papillomavirus type 16 E6 mutants for their ability to bind and target E6TP1 for degradation in vitro and in vivo. We observed a strict correlation between the ability of E6 protein to target E6TP1 for degradation and its ability to immortalize MECs. Recent studies have identified telomerase as a target of E6 protein. Previous analyses of E6 mutants have revealed this trait to closely correlate with MEC immortalization. We examined our entire panel of E6 mutants for rapid induction of telomerase activity and found in general a strong correlation with immortalizing ability. The tight correlation between E6TP1 degradation and MEC immortalization strongly supports a critical role of functional inactivation of E6TP1 in E6-induced cellular immortalization.     

The cysteine-rich domain protein KCP is a suppressor of transforming growth factor beta/activin signaling in renal epithelia

The transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily, including the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) and TGF-beta/activin A subfamilies, is regulated by secreted proteins able to sequester or present ligands to receptors. KCP is a secreted, cysteine-rich (CR) protein with similarity to mouse Chordin and Xenopus laevis Kielin. KCP is an enhancer of BMP signaling in vertebrates and interacts with BMPs and the BMP type I receptor to promote receptor-ligand interactions. Mice homozygous for a KCP null allele are hypersensitive to developing renal interstitial fibrosis, a disease stimulated by TGF-beta but inhibited by BMP7. In this report, the effects of KCP on TGF-beta/activin A signaling are examined. In contrast to the enhancing effect on BMPs, KCP inhibits both activin A- and TGF-beta1-mediated signaling through the Smad2/3 pathway. These inhibitory effects of KCP are mediated in a paracrine manner, suggesting that direct binding of KCP to TGF-beta1 or activin A can block the interactions with prospective receptors. Consistent with this inhibitory effect, primary renal epithelial cells from KCP mutant cells are hypersensitive to TGF-beta and exhibit increased apoptosis, dissociation of cadherin-based cell junctions, and expression of smooth muscle actin. Furthermore, KCP null animals show elevated levels of phosphorylated Smad2 after renal injury. The ability to enhance BMP signaling while suppressing TGF-beta activation indicates a critical role for KCP in modulating the responses between these anti- and profibrotic cytokines in the initiation and progression of renal interstitial fibrosis.