Predator,prey and humans in a mountainous area: loss of biological diversity leads to trouble

Large carnivore-human coexistence is a challenging issue in wildlife conservation worldwide. An adequate and diverse prey spectrum favours carnivore persistence. Prey depletion and habitat loss elicit conflict with humans and require sound conservation measures. We evaluated the conflict between common leopards and humans in a densely populated Himalayan forest area of Pakistan. In two decades, the local forests decreased at an average rate of 65.5 ha/year (6.6%), with a concomitant increase in areas covered by human settlements (81.5%) and agricultural lands (15.4%). Ranging movements of a GPS/GSM-radiotagged male leopard over 16 months encompassed an area inhabited by c. 124,000 people. Livestock dominated the leopard’s diet (absolute frequency of occurrence: 80%), while wild ungulates were rarely eaten (absolute occurrence: 22%). Domestic goats were the most frequent diet item (61%), followed by domestic dogs (12%) and Bos spp. (6%). Wild prey included canids, small carnivores, rhesus monkeys, small mammals and gallinaceous birds. Socioeconomic implications of human-leopard coexistence were investigated: 18.5% of the households interviewed (N?=?1016) suffered livestock depredation by leopards, with an overall loss of 123 USD/km²/year, in an area of 328 km². In the first c. 15 years of this century, about 2 attacks to humans/year were recorded, half of which were lethal, whereas c. 6 leopards/year were killed in retaliation. The common leopard is ‘critically endangered’ in Pakistan mainly because of habitat loss and concurrent prey depletion. To increase the long-term survival of leopards and mitigate human-carnivore conflicts, priority should be given to restoration of a diverse natural prey assembly and protection of forest habitats, together with improved livestock management practices and livestock compensation. The latter will require a sustainable financial mechanism.     

Evaluation of the role of the national parks for Persian leopard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Panther pardus saxicolor</Emphasis>, Pocock 1927) habitat conservation (case study: Tandooreh National Park,Iran)

Having knowledge of the habitat requirements of top predators is important for their conservation and also for the stability of wildlife communities since they are keystone species of ecosystems. This study aims to predict suitable habitats for the Persian leopard (Panther pardus saxicolor, Pocock 1927) in Tandooreh National Park, Iran. This species is the largest leopard subspecies in the Middle East and is at high risk of extinction. Presence points for the species have been obtained from field data, literature review, atlas data, and IUCN records. Variables related to human disturbance, terrain, land use/land cover, and the leopards’ prey were used to predict the habitat selection of the Persian leopard by employing binary logistic regression. Our model predicted that the presence of Persian leopards is restricted to the southern, north-western, and western areas of the park which are under severe fragmentation threat. Moreover, leopards avoided areas near human development such as roads. We have also found that the availability of prey such as Capra aegagrus, Ovis vignei, and Ovis orientalis is one of the important parameters to predict habitat suitability for leopards. Our model provides a suitable tool for national park managers to identify biodiversity hotspots since leopards are often associated with high biodiversity.     

Black bear (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ursus americanus</Emphasis>) and wolf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis</Emphasis> spp.) summer diet composition and ungulate prey selectivity in Ontario,Canada

Understanding predator-prey dynamics is an important component of management strategy development for wildlife populations that are directly affected by predation. Ungulates often serve as a significant source of prey for many large mammal predators, and patterns of predation are known to influence population dynamics. Although black bear and wolf diets have been investigated extensively, prey preference has been less commonly examined, especially in analyses that take into account age class (i.e., juvenile and adult) of the ungulate prey. We examined black bear (Ursus americanus), wolf (Canis lupus), and hybrids (Canis spp.) prey preference in Ontario based on the availability of three ungulate species—elk (Cervus elaphus), moose (Alces alces), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We analyzed the presence of prey items in black bear and wolf scats collected over 3 years by examining prey hair cuticular scale patterns. We applied correction factors to frequencies of occurrence of prey items found in predator scat and related diet composition to the availability of ungulates, determined by fecal pellet transect surveys. In addition, non-ungulate diet items were identified to obtain full diet composition profiles. We found that black bear diet consisted of more than 87% vegetation, and they were opportunistic, not selecting for any particular ungulate species in either adult or juvenile age class. Wolf diet was comprised mainly of ungulates (~?73.2%), muskrat (Ondatra zibethica; ~?8.5%), and beaver (Castor canadensis; ~?14.6%), and although moose were at least 1.5 times more abundant then each of the other ungulate prey species in the study area, wolves preferred elk, using moose less than expected. Although we found black bear diet to be opportunistic during the summer, wolves in our study heavily utilized both juvenile and adult ungulates, however, among ungulate species, displayed preference for elk. The preference displayed by wolves provides insight that wildlife managers can use to guide further investigation and assist with the development of strategies to ensure continued elk reintroduction success, and moose and white-tailed deer population sustainability.     

Interspecific killing between wolves and golden jackals in Iran

Interspecific killing is a widespread phenomenon among mammalian carnivores; being common, for instance, within the canid guild. The canid guild in Hamadan province, west of Iran, comprises three species: the gray wolf Canis lupus pallipes, the golden jackal Canis aureus, and the red fox Vulpes vulpes. In this area, habitat transformation and agricultural land uses have significantly reduced wild prey populations. In search of food, members of the canid guild are often driven to human settlements. Due to inefficient waste management, the major source of food for canids here is anthropogenic food resources, such as livestock and pet carcasses, and domestic waste illegally dumped near poultry farms and rural areas. Here, we described one of the first reports in the literature of a case of interspecific killing between a wolf and a golden jackal. On June 13, 2016, a collared wolf (adult male) killed an adult jackal (adult male). Further studies are required to understand intraguild competition among red fox, golden jackals, and wolves in this area.     

Composition and diversity of the bacterial community in snow leopard (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Uncia uncia</Emphasis>) distal gut

Intestinal microflora influences many essential metabolic functions, and is receiving increasing attention from the scientific community. However, information on intestinal microbiota, especially for large wild carnivores, is insufficient. In the present study, the bacterial community in the feces of snow leopards (Uncia uncia) was described based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis. A total of 339 near-full-length 16S rRNA gene sequences representing 46 non-redundant bacterial phylotypes (operational taxonomical units, OTUs) were identified in fecal samples from four healthy snow leopards. Four different bacterial phyla were identified: Firmicutes (56.5 %), Actinobacteria (17.5 %), Bacteroidetes (13 %), and Proteobacteria (13 %). The phylum Actinobacteria was the most abundant lineage, with 40.4 % of all identified clones, but Clostridiales, with 50 % of all OTUs, was the most diverse bacterial order. The order Clostridiales was affiliated with four families: Clostridiaceae I, Lachnospiraceae, Peptostreptococcaceae, and Ruminococcaceae. Lachnospiraceae was the most diverse family with 17 OTUs identified. These findings were basically consistent with previous reports on the bacterial diversity in feces from other mammals.     

Genetic variability and population structure of grey wolf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>) in Serbia

Results of previous morphometric and genetic analyses of grey wolf (Canis lupus L.) population from Serbia indicated different patterns of population subdivision. In order to explore population structure, level of genetic variability, genetic drift, inbreeding and signals of bottleneck for grey wolves from Serbia, we applied highly polymorphic genetic markers (microsatellites). Obtained data are valuable in determination of conservation units and creation of appropriate management plans. We have amplified 18 highly polymorphic microsatellites, in a total sample of 75 grey wolves, from different localities across Serbia and multilocus genotypes were analyzed using appropriate software. Observed values of the basic genetic parameters (H_O = 0.69; H_E = 0.75) indicated moderate level of genetic variability, similar to genetic variability in other populations belonging to the Dinaric-Balkan population of grey wolf. In STRUCTURE analysis, although ΔK was estimated to be at first peak K = 2, and second peak K = 4, CLUMPAK analyses showed that there’s no structuring for any of assumed K, and therefore the population of grey wolf from Serbia may be considered as one continuous population and treated as one conservation unit in future management plans. Signals of bottleneck haven’t been observed (Wilcoxon test two phase mutation model p = 0.247; and stepwise mutation model p = 0.815).     

Dietary Spectrum of Two Sympatric Canid Species in Ladakh,India

We have conducted a study between May and August 2013 to understand the dietary spectrum of two canid species: Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus chanco) and Red fox (Vulpes vulpes) in one of the most inhospitable landscape of the world. Ladakh is characterized by harsh environmental conditions and low primary productivity and therefore animal populations, particularly of large and medium sized herbivores are also low and sparsely distributed. This in turn poses a challenge to the survival of predators. We have attempted to investigate the ways by which the two sympatric canid species are optimizing feeding for their survival in an environment where there is scarcity of wild prey base. Scats of the two species were collected from Chiktan and Rangdum valleys and undigested food remnants were identified. The dietary spectrum of Tibetan wolf was composed of six prey species (2 wild and 4 livestock species). The share of livestock species in the diet was maximum (RO: 62.0%). The Red fox being an opportunistic feeder consumed 19 forgeable items, including small and medium sized mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, plant material, eggs, stones and debris. The livestock species contributed maximum to the diet of Red fox (RO: 22.9%). The dietary niche breadths of both species were more or less similar (0.53 and 0.58) and indicating a generalist feeding behavior. Both the species are surviving in the same environment with a dietary overlap of 0.60. The given information is expected to aid further studies in Indian Trans-Himalaya.     

Monitoring wolves (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>) by non-invasive genetics and camera trapping: a small-scale pilot study

Monitoring populations of elusive large carnivores like wolves (Canis lupus), which are often distributed at low density in widespread forested areas, is difficult or exceedingly expensive. Aiming to assess the power of two indirect monitoring methods, non-invasive genetic sampling and camera trapping, we designed a small-scale pilot study that was carried out from 2006 to 2008 in and around the Corno alle Scale Regional Park, Bologna, northern Italian Apennine. We collected 103 non-invasive samples (mainly scats) that were genotyped at 12 microsatellite loci and sexed using the ZFX gene. We identified 11 distinct wolf genotypes within the park and four wolf genotypes outside. Spatial locations and kinship analyses showed that the wolves belong to three different packs. The breeding pair of the ‘Park’ pack showed a complete turnover in the two sampling seasons. Two dogs, but no hybrids, were identified in the area. Up to five unbaited camera traps were activated (for 1,250 trapping-nights) close to recent wolf presence marks. We obtained 103 photos of wolves, documenting the reproduction events, the minimum number of adult and young wolves, and phenotype information each year. We obtained information on health conditions detecting probable sarcoptic mange in three individuals. Camera trapping also showed that the presence of wolves in a chase area during wild boar (Sus scrofa) hunting sessions was significantly higher in the nights just after a chase (P?χ ² test; P?相似文献   

Long-distance dispersal of a wolf, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>, in northwestern Europe

Several mammal species have recolonized their historical ranges across Europe during the last decades. In November 2012, a wolf-looking canid was found dead in Thy National Park (56° 56′ N, 8° 25′ E) in Jutland, Denmark. DNA from this individual and nine German wolves were genotyped using a genome-wide panel of 22,163 canine single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and compared to existing profiles based on the same marker panel obtained from northeastern Polish (n?=?13) wolves, domestic dogs (n?=?13) and known wolf-dog hybrids (n?=?4). The Thy canid was confirmed to be a wolf from the German-western Polish population, approximately 800 km to the southeast. Access to the German reference database on DNA profiles based on 13 autosomal microsatellites of German wolves made it possible to pinpoint the exact pack origin of the Thy wolf in Saxony, Germany. This was the first documented observation of a wolf in Denmark in 200 years and another example of long-distance dispersal of a carnivore.     

Diet composition of wolves<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis> in the northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau,China

From August 1998 to August 2001, 119 wolf scats were collected from the desert in a pastoral region in northeastern Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, China. The study area is the last habitat for the critically endangered Przewalski’s gazelleProcapra przewalskii. Wolf predation was hypothesized as a cause of the endangerment of the Przewalski’s gazelle. The diet of wolf during the plant green period (June-September) and the plant withering period (October-May) were determined using three scat-analysis methods: frequency of occurrence, mass in scats and the ingested biomass obtained with the linear regression models of Weaver (1993). Limited to mammalian prey, total agreement was found between the dry weight and biomass methods, but less so between the frequency of occurrence data and other methods. Hare, yak, and small rodents were the important prey species of the wolves during the plant green period, each accounting for 33, 27, and 20%. Yak, sheep and hare were the important prey species during the plant withering period, each accounting for 53, 25, and 17%. Other food types were badger, Przewalski’s gazelle, birds, reptiles, invertebrates and plants. The presence of the livestock remains in the wolf’s scats may imply scavenging behavior by the wolves, because few cases of missing livestock were reported during the study. No notable seasonal difference in the diet composition of the wolves was found. The food niche of wolf during the plant green period (0.55 ± 0.02) was similar to that during the plant withering period (0.50 ± 0.02).     

The cost of livestock lost to lions and other wildlife species in the Amboseli ecosystem,Kenya

Though retaliatory lion (Panthera leo) killing as a result of livestock predation in the Maasai group ranches between the Tsavo NPs and Amboseli is remarkably high, other wildlife species are known to kill livestock. Surprisingly, lions suffer the most from retaliatory killing by the Maasai community for killing livestock. The extent of livestock predation by lions in comparison to other species is unknown. This study was carried out in the Olgulului group ranch (OGR) located adjacent to Amboseli National Park in June 2009. The cost of livestock killed by each of these species including lion, hyena (Crocuta crocuta), cheetah (Acynonyx jubatus), leopard (Panthera pardus), olive baboon (Papio cynocephalus), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas), and African elephant (Loxodonta africana) was analyzed. Questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews with officials from OGR, Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), and compensation scheme organizations were the methods used to collect information. Cluster and systematic sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 199 respondents from OGR. Lions were blamed for 40.5% (US$ 374,603) of the value of livestock lost to wildlife. The costs of livestock lost to hyenas and lions were not significantly different (q = 0.24, p = 0.968). Although hyenas killed more livestock compared to lions, the economic damage between the two was not significantly different because lions attacked cattle which had high economic value. Conservation of lions will be increasingly difficult if the current levels of predation are not reduced to economically and socially acceptable levels.     

Estimation of pack density in grey wolf (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>) by applying spatially explicit capture-recapture models to camera trap data supported by genetic monitoring

Background

Density estimation is a key issue in wildlife management but is particularly challenging and labour-intensive for elusive species. Recently developed approaches based on remotely collected data and capture-recapture models, though representing a valid alternative to more traditional methods, have found little application to species with limited morphological variation. We implemented a camera trap capture-recapture study to survey wolf packs in a 560-km² area of Central Italy. Individual recognition of focal animals (alpha) in the packs was possible by relying on morphological and behavioural traits and was validated by non-invasive genotyping and inter-observer agreement tests. Two types (Bayesian and likelihood-based) of spatially explicit capture-recapture (SCR) models were fitted on wolf pack capture histories, thus obtaining an estimation of pack density in the area.

Results

In two sessions of camera trapping surveys (2014 and 2015), we detected a maximum of 12 wolf packs. A Bayesian model implementing a half-normal detection function without a trap-specific response provided the most robust result, corresponding to a density of 1.21?±?0.27 packs/100 km² in 2015. Average pack size varied from 3.40 (summer 2014, excluding pups and lone-transient wolves) to 4.17 (late winter-spring 2015, excluding lone-transient wolves).

Conclusions

We applied for the first time a camera-based SCR approach in wolves, providing the first robust estimate of wolf pack density for an area of Italy. We showed that this method is applicable to wolves under the following conditions: i) the existence of sufficient phenotypic/behavioural variation and the recognition of focal individuals (i.e. alpha, verified by non-invasive genotyping); ii) the investigated area is sufficiently large to include a minimum number of packs (ideally 10); iii) a pilot study is carried out to pursue an adequate sampling design and to train operators on individual wolf recognition. We believe that replicating this approach in other areas can allow for an assessment of density variation across the wolf range and would provide a reliable reference parameter for ecological studies.

     

Spatial variability in wolf diet and prey selection in Galicia (NW Spain)

We studied wolf (Canis lupus) diet for three different landscapes in the north-western Iberian Peninsula, differing in land uses and availability of food for wolves. We examined 2740 scats, collected over a period of 4 years, in order to describe wolf diet, its geographic variation, and trophic preferences. The most consumed species were wild pony, roe deer and cattle. We observed differences in wolf diet among the three study sites, related to the availability and accessibility of food resources in each habitat. For the two study sites in northern and central Galicia, wolves showed similar diet, with high occurrence of wild pony (37 vs. 34%) and cattle (20 vs. 23%), but differing in the consumption of wild ungulates (16 vs. 8%) and carrion (7 vs. 14%). Wolf diet in eastern Galicia’s mountain ranges was entirely different, due to the higher consumption of wild ungulates (70%). Wolves showed clear prey selection patterns. Between wild ponies and livestock, wolves positively selected ponies. Among wild ungulates, wolves positively selected roe deer. Wild pony and roe deer are key species for wolf feeding in Galicia. In the Galician wild pony range, ponies are the main food for wolves. Given that the availability of wild ponies may contribute to the decrease in wolf predation on cattle, it is essential to develop innovative administrative decisions in such areas to preserve this traditional equid population. In the same way, the population of roe deer should be strengthened in the livestock areas outside the range of wild pony.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Mycobacterium caprae</Emphasis> transmission to free-living grey wolves (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Canis lupus</Emphasis>) in the Bieszczady Mountains in Southern Poland

The aim of this study was to assess whether animal tuberculosis (TB) is transmitted between free-living European bison (Bison bonasus caucasicus), wild boars (Sus scrofa), and protected carnivores such as grey wolves (Canis lupus), brown bears (Ursus arctos), and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) in the Bieszczady Mountains in Southern Poland. Results of animal studies suggest that TB transmission from bison or wild boars to grey wolves is possible. These are the first described cases where Mycobacterium caprae was detected in samples collected from grey wolves.     

Food habits of the snow leopard Panthera uncia (Schreber, 1775) in Baltistan, Northern Pakistan

The snow leopard (Panthera uncia) inhabits the high, remote mountains of Pakistan from where very little information is available on prey use of this species. Our study describes the food habits of the snow leopard in the Himalayas and Karakoram mountain ranges in Baltistan, Pakistan. Ninety-five putrid snow leopard scats were collected from four sites in Baltistan. Of these, 49 scats were genetically confirmed to have originated from snow leopards. The consumed prey was identified on the basis of morphological characteristics of hairs recovered from the scats. It was found that most of the biomass consumed (70%) was due to domestic livestock viz. sheep (23%), goat (16%), cattle (10%), yak (7%), and cattle?Cyak hybrids (14%). Only 30% of the biomass was due to wild species, namely Siberian ibex (21%), markhor (7%), and birds (2%). Heavy predation on domestic livestock appeared to be the likely cause of conflict with the local inhabitants. Conservation initiatives should focus on mitigating this conflict by minimizing livestock losses.     

No silver bullet? Snow leopard prey selection in Mt. Kangchenjunga,Nepal

In this study, we investigated the impact of domestic and wild prey availability on snow leopard prey preference in the Kangchenjunga Conservation Area of eastern Nepal—a region where small domestic livestock are absent and small wild ungulate prey are present. We took a comprehensive approach that combined fecal genetic sampling, macro‐ and microscopic analyses of snow leopard diets, and direct observation of blue sheep and livestock in the KCA. Out of the collected 88 putative snow leopard scat samples from 140 transects (290 km) in 27 (4 × 4 km²) sampling grid cells, 73 (83%) were confirmed to be from snow leopard. The genetic analysis accounted for 19 individual snow leopards (10 males and 9 females), with a mean population size estimate of 24 (95% CI: 19–29) and an average density of 3.9 snow leopards/100 km² within 609 km². The total available prey biomass of blue sheep and yak was estimated at 355,236 kg (505 kg yak/km² and 78 kg blue sheep/km²). From the available prey biomass, we estimated snow leopards consumed 7% annually, which comprised wild prey (49%), domestic livestock (45%), and 6% unidentified items. The estimated 47,736 kg blue sheep biomass gives a snow leopard‐to‐blue sheep ratio of 1:59 on a weight basis. The high preference of snow leopard to domestic livestock appears to be influenced by a much smaller available biomass of wild prey than in other regions of Nepal (e.g., 78 kg/km² in the KCA compared with a range of 200–300 kg/km² in other regions of Nepal). Along with livestock insurance scheme improvement, there needs to be a focus on improved livestock guarding, predator‐proof corrals as well as engaging and educating local people to be citizen scientists on the importance of snow leopard conservation, involving them in long‐term monitoring programs and promotion of ecotourism.     

Exposure of Free-Ranging Wild Carnivores and Domestic Dogs to Canine Distemper Virus and Parvovirus in the Cerrado of Central Brazil

Human population growth around protected areas increases the contact between wild and domestic animals, promoting disease transmission between them. This study investigates the exposure of free-ranging wild carnivores and domestic dogs to canine distemper virus (CDV) and parvovirus in Emas National Park (ENP) in the Cerrado savanna of central Brazil. Serum samples were collected from 169 wild carnivores, including the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), hoary fox (Pseudalopex vetulus), puma (Puma concolor), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), pampas cat (Leopardus colocolo), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), striped hog-nosed skunk (Conepatus semistriatus) and coati (Nasua nasua), and from 35 domestic dogs living on rural properties bordering ENP. Serological tests showed that 10.6% of wild carnivores (maned wolves, crab-eating foxes and ocelots) and 71.4% of domestic dogs were exposed to CDV, and 56.8% of wild carnivores, including all species sampled except coatis, and 57.1% of domestic dogs were exposed to parvovirus. This report is the first to indicate that the free-ranging pampas cat, jaguarundi and striped hog-nosed skunk are exposed to parvovirus. CDV and parvovirus deserve attention in ENP, and it is extremely important to monitor the health of carnivore populations and perform molecular diagnosis of the viruses to determine the possible involvement of the domestic dog in their transmission.     

The <Emphasis Type="Italic">IGF1</Emphasis>small dog haplotype is derived from Middle Eastern grey wolves

Background

A selective sweep containing the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF1) gene is associated with size variation in domestic dogs. Intron 2 of IGF1 contains a SINE element and single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) found in all small dog breeds that is almost entirely absent from large breeds. In this study, we surveyed a large sample of grey wolf populations to better understand the ancestral pattern of variation at IGF1 with a particular focus on the distribution of the small dog haplotype and its relationship to the origin of the dog.

Results

We present DNA sequence data that confirms the absence of the derived small SNP allele in the intron 2 region of IGF1 in a large sample of grey wolves and further establishes the absence of a small dog associated SINE element in all wild canids and most large dog breeds. Grey wolf haplotypes from the Middle East have higher nucleotide diversity suggesting an origin there. Additionally, PCA and phylogenetic analyses suggests a closer kinship of the small domestic dog IGF1 haplotype with those from Middle Eastern grey wolves.

Conclusions

The absence of both the SINE element and SNP allele in grey wolves suggests that the mutation for small body size post-dates the domestication of dogs. However, because all small dogs possess these diagnostic mutations, the mutations likely arose early in the history of domestic dogs. Our results show that the small dog haplotype is closely related to those in Middle Eastern wolves and is consistent with an ancient origin of the small dog haplotype there. Thus, in concordance with past archeological studies, our molecular analysis is consistent with the early evolution of small size in dogs from the Middle East.See associated opinion by Driscoll and Macdonald: http://jbiol.com/content/9/2/10

     

Food habits of three carnivores in a mosaic landscape of São Paulo state,Brazil

São Paulo is the most developed state in Brazil, but despite intense land use changes, some mammal species still inhabit remnant fragments of native vegetation of the state. We used fecal analyses to investigate prey diversity, trophic niche breadth, and trophic niche overlap of pumas, ocelots, and maned wolves in protected and non-protected areas in São Paulo state. During 18 months, we inspected more than 10,000 km of roads and trails and collected 233 fecal samples. Maned wolves showed generalist food habit, ocelots were predominantly carnivores, and pumas were strict carnivores. The European hare, an exotic species which had not yet been reported in the study area, was identified in the feces of a puma. Trophic niche breadth was the lowest for maned wolves (BA?=?0.339) and the highest for pumas (BA?=?0.723). Trophic niche overlap was high between maned wolves and ocelots (O_jk?=?0.765) and between pumas and ocelots (O_jk?=?0.639). Significantly different diets of maned wolves and ocelots were observed between dry and rainy seasons. Our findings indicate that these three species may adapt their diets to the disturbed landscapes. This is the second study characterizing food habits of ocelots in Cerrado areas but the first considering a large number of samples.     

Few But Relatively Large Prey: Trophic Ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chauliodus sloani</Emphasis> (Pisces: Stomiidae) in Deep Waters of the Central Mediterranean Sea

The trophic ecology of Chauliodus sloani (Stomiidae) was thoroughly investigated by stomach content analysis for the first time in the Mediterranean. Overall 206 individuals (64.0–260.0 mm SL) were collected from 2013 to 2015. C. sloani can be defined a specialist predator which feeds exclusively on mesopelagic fish belonging to Gonostomatidae, Myctophidae, Paralepididae, Phosichthyidae, Sternoptychidae and Stomiidae. Gonostomatidae (%IRI = 26.02), Myctophidae (%IRI = 24.77) and Sternoptychidae (%IRI = 24.35) were important food items for C. sloani. Maurolicus muelleri (%IRI = 36.43), Cyclothone braueri (%IRI = 28.26) and Vinciguerria attenuata (%IRI = 12.97) were the most important prey. Cases of cannibalism were also observed. The examination of food size spectrum, in relation to predator length, demonstrated that C. sloani developed a feeding strategy aimed to maximizing energy input and based on the capture of few and relatively large prey: more than 50% of prey items exceeded the value of 20% for ratio between prey and predator size (SL) and the 5.4% of prey measured more than 50% of predator size. Differences in food composition across seasons were found; C. braueri and M. muelleri were more abundant in autumn, V. attenuata during spring. Prey items mainly belongs to weakly vertical migrating fauna, usually concentrated at 400 m Deep Scattering Layer.