Distance and size matters: A comparison of six wildlife camera traps and their usefulness for wild birds

Camera traps are increasingly used in ecological research. However, tests of their performance are scarce. It is already known from previous work that camera traps frequently fail to capture visits by animals. This can lead to a misinterpretation of ecological results such as density estimates or predation events. While previous work is mainly based on mammals, for birds, no data about if and how camera traps can be successfully used to estimate species diversity or density are available. Hence, the goal of our study was an empirical validation of six different camera traps in the field. We observed a total number of N = 4567 events (independent visits of a bird) in 100 different sessions from March 2017 until January 2018 while camera traps were deployed. In addition, N = 641 events are based on a comparison of the two close‐up camera traps especially designed for birds. These events were all directly observed by the authors. Thus, the cameras can be compared against the human observer. To give an overall assessment and a more generalizable result, we combined the data from the six camera traps and showed that bird size category (effect size = 0.207) and distance (effect size = 0.132) are the most important predictors for a successful trigger. Also, temperature had a small effect, and flock size had an impact with larger flocks being captured more often. The approach of the bird, whether it approached the camera frontally or laterally had no influence. In Table 8 , we give some recommendations, based on our results, at which distances camera traps should be placed to get a 25%, 50%, and 75% capture rate for a given bird size.     

利用红外相机对深圳野生兽类鸟类多样性的调查

城市动物调查对监测生物多样性研究、城市生态建设具有十分重要的意义。深圳作为新兴崛起的大城市,动物多样性受城市化干扰的程度较传统大城市少,但近年来缺乏对该地区的生物资源进行全面调查。我们于2014年4月至2015年4月,在深圳市（陆域）郊区布设了57个红外相机监测点,对深圳市鸟类和兽类多样性进行了初步调查。在相机累积工作3780个捕获日中,获得动物有效照片607张,经鉴定,可辨识的兽类共3目6科8种;鸟类共计3目9科26种。其中褐翅鸦鹃被列为国家二级保护动物,列入《国家保护的有益的或者有重要经济、科学研究价值的陆生野生名录》的鸟兽共有24种。除鼠类外,相对丰富度较高的物种有灰背鸫、野猪、橙头地鸫、乌灰鸫等。经分析发现都市内野生动物的日活动节律与自然保护区的存在一定差异。本研究为在城市深入开展野生动物资源调查研究提供了一种新的思路和手段。     

Daily and seasonal activity patterns of the dorcas gazelle,scimitar-horned oryx,north-African ostrich and canids in an arid habitat

North Africa's megafauna has developed behavioural adaptations to reduce energetic and fitness costs under harsh arid land conditions. Animal behaviour and activity patterns are difficult to study in the wild, but remote camera traps provide a solution to collecting data without the presence of a researcher influencing outcomes. Here, we report results from a study comprising over 20,382 camera-trap days during a 34-month period in Dghoumes National Park, Tunisia. We aimed to evaluate temporal activity patterns and their overlap and explore opportunities for niche partitioning. Our focal species were the reintroduced scimitar-horned oryx, north-African ostrich, dorcas gazelles and extant regional top-order predators, African wolf and red fox. We found differences in activity patterns between seasons across the focal species, with the most noticeable change being an increase in dawn activity from 1% to 33% between winter and summer for the red fox. Consequently, higher summer temperatures limit opportunities for temporal niche partitioning and push focal species towards dawn-time activity peaks resulting in higher intra-guild overlap values at dawn. Arid antelopes have physiological adaptations that enable them to better exploit ecological resources in hotter time periods than the carnivores, and this reduces inter-guild overlap during summer days.     

Hair Sampling Techniques for River Otters

ABSTRACT River otter (Lontra canadensis) populations have been difficult to monitor and information on densities is lacking throughout their range. To obtain DNA-based population estimates of river otters we developed 2 traps to capture hair; a modified body-snare and a modified foot-hold trap. Of 82 traps activated 77 captured hairs (94%). Traps snagged 3–20 guard hairs per capture. Our capture rates of otter hair ranged from one capture per 3.6 trap nights to one capture per 156.6 trap-nights. Our traps provide an effective, noninvasive technique for obtaining hair DNA from individual river otters.     

An evaluation of camera traps for inventorying large- and medium-sized terrestrial rainforest mammals

Mammal inventories in tropical forests are often difficult to carry out, and many elusive species are missed or only reported from interviews with local people. Camera traps offer a new tool for conducting inventories of large- and medium-sized terrestrial mammals. We evaluated the efficiency of camera traps based on data from two surveys carried out at a single site during 2 consecutive years. The survey efforts were 1440 and 2340 camera days, and 75 and 86% of the 28 large- and medium-sized terrestrial mammal species known to occur at the site were recorded. Capture frequencies for different species were highly correlated between the surveys, and the capture probability for animals that passed in front of the cameras decreased with decreasing size of the species. Camera spacing and total survey area had little influence on the number of species recorded, with survey effort being the main factor determining the number of recorded species. Using a model we demonstrated the exponential increase in survey effort required to record the most elusive species. We evaluated the performance of different species richness estimators on this dataset and found the Jackknife estimators generally to perform best. We give recommendations on how to increase efficiency of camera trap surveys exclusively targeted at species inventories.     

Mammal Diversity and Conservation in a Secondary Forest in Peninsular Malaysia

A comprehensive survey on large mammal diversity from a disturbed forest in Peninsular Malaysia has been carried out for over a period of 21 months. A total of 24 camera traps which accumulated to 5972 trap days. A total of 33 species 27 genera and 15 families of mammals were recorded via camera trapping and observations. The use of camera traps provides detailed information on diversity of some cryptic and secretive mammals. Secondary forest may support a wide diversity of mammals at a stable condition where intrusion, excision and fragmentation are reduced or avoided. The threats to mammals in the study are also discussed.     

Determining the efficacy of camera traps,live capture traps,and detection dogs for locating cryptic small mammal species

Metal box (e.g., Elliott, Sherman) traps and remote cameras are two of the most commonly employed methods presently used to survey terrestrial mammals. However, their relative efficacy at accurately detecting cryptic small mammals has not been adequately assessed. The present study therefore compared the effectiveness of metal box (Elliott) traps and vertically oriented, close range, white flash camera traps in detecting small mammals occurring in the Scenic Rim of eastern Australia. We also conducted a preliminary survey to determine effectiveness of a conservation detection dog (CDD) for identifying presence of a threatened carnivorous marsupial, Antechinus arktos, in present‐day and historical locations, using camera traps to corroborate detections. 200 Elliott traps and 20 white flash camera traps were set for four deployments per method, across a site where the target small mammals, including A. arktos, are known to occur. Camera traps produced higher detection probabilities than Elliott traps for all four species. Thus, vertically mounted white flash cameras were preferable for detecting the presence of cryptic small mammals in our survey. The CDD, which had been trained to detect A. arktos scat, indicated in total 31 times when deployed in the field survey area, with subsequent camera trap deployments specifically corroborating A. arktos presence at 100% (3) indication locations. Importantly, the dog indicated twice within Border Ranges National Park, where historical (1980s–1990s) specimen‐based records indicate the species was present, but extensive Elliott and camera trapping over the last 5–10 years have resulted in zero A. arktos captures. Camera traps subsequently corroborated A. arktos presence at these sites. This demonstrates that detection dogs can be a highly effective means of locating threatened, cryptic species, especially when traditional methods are unable to detect low‐density mammal populations.     

Who really ate the fruit? A novel approach to camera trapping for quantifying frugivory by ruminants

Tropical forest ruminants disperse several plants; yet, their effectiveness as seed dispersers is not systematically quantified. Information on frequency and extent of frugivory by ruminants is lacking. Techniques such as tree watches or fruit traps adapted from avian frugivore studies are not suitable to study terrestrial frugivores, and conventional camera traps provide little quantitative information. We used a novel time-delay camera-trap technique to assess the effectiveness of ruminants as seed dispersers for Phyllanthus emblica at Mudumalai, southern India. After being triggered by animal movement, cameras were programmed to take pictures every 2 min for the next 6 min, yielding a sequence of four pictures. Actual frugivores were differentiated from mere visitors, who did not consume fruit, by comparing the number of fruit remaining across the time-delay photograph sequence. During a 2-year study using this technique, we found that six terrestrial mammals consumed fallen P. emblica fruit. Additionally, seven mammals and one bird species visited fruiting trees but did not consume fallen fruit. Two ruminants, the Indian chevrotain Moschiola indica and chital Axis axis, were P. emblica’s most frequent frugivores and they accounted for over 95% of fruit removal, while murid rodents accounted for less than 1%. Plants like P. emblica that are dispersed mainly by large mammalian frugivores are likely to have limited ability to migrate across fragmented landscapes in response to rapidly changing climates. We hope that more quantitative information on ruminant frugivory will become available with a wider application of our time-delay camera-trap technique.     

Heterogeneous capture rates in low density populations and consequences for capture-recapture analysis of camera-trap data

Closed population capture-recapture analysis of camera-trap data has become the conventional method for estimating the abundance of individually recognisable cryptic species living at low densities, such as large felids. Often these estimates are the only information available to guide wildlife managers and conservation policy. Capture probability of the target species using camera traps is commonly heterogeneous and low. Published studies often report overall capture probabilities as low as 0.03 and fail to report on the level of heterogeneity in capture probability. We used simulations to study the effects of low and heterogeneous capture probability on the reliability of abundance estimates using the M_h jack-knife estimator within a closed-population capture-recapture framework. High heterogeneity in capture probability was associated with under- and over-estimates of true abundance. The use of biased abundance estimates could have serious conservation management consequences. We recommend that studies present capture frequencies of all sampled individuals so that policy makers can assess the reliability of the abundance estimates.     

利用红外相机技术对广东车八岭国家级自然保护区兽类和鸟类资源的初步调查

为深入了解广东车八岭国家级自然保护区野生动物资源现状,于2014年9月至2016年11月在保护区内布设101个红外相机调查位点,累计11 399相机日。共获得有动物的独立有效照片2 549张,鉴定兽类和鸟类有9目19科43种(兽类13种,鸟类30种),包括6种国家Ⅱ级重点保护野生动物：斑灵狸(Prionodon pardicolor)、中华鬣羚(Capricornis milneedwardsii)、白鹇(Lophura nycthemera)、仙八色鸫(Pitta nympha)、褐翅鸦鹃(Centropus sinensis)和松雀鹰(Accipiter virgatus)。红腿长吻松鼠(Dremomys pyrrhomerus)、小泡巨鼠(Leopoldamys edwardsi)、仙八色鸫、橙头地鸫(Zoothera citrina)和白冠燕尾(Enicurus leschenaultia)为保护区的新纪录物种。相对丰富度指数较高的兽类有红腿长吻松鼠、赤麂(Muntiacus vaginalis)和野猪(Sus scrofa),相对丰富度指数较高的鸟类有白鹇和黑领噪鹛(Garrulax pectoralis)。此外,鸟兽物种数呈现一定的海拔分布趋势,以海拔450~600 m之间的物种多样性最高,但差异不显著。与南岭山脉邻近保护区相比,就已发表的红外相机监测结果而言,车八岭的鸟类多样性最高,而南岭保护区的兽类多样性较高,鸟兽的不同分布可能与保护区亚热带常绿阔叶林的面积和生态系统的完整性有关。本次初步调查掌握了车八岭保护区的鸟兽多样性数据,为以后该保护区及整个南岭山脉野生动物资源长期监测积累了基础资料。     

笼捕法和陷阱法对森林小型兽类多样性监测效率比较

<正>小型兽类包括食虫目(Insectivora)、啮齿目(Rodentia)、翼手目(Chiroptera)、兔形目(Lagomorpha)等,物种数量多,分布广,适应能力强,对环境变化敏感,因此其群落组成和种群数量变化可较好地反映生境变化的质量和人类活动的干扰程度(肖治术等,2002;李俊生等,2003;仝磊和路纪琪,2010)。小型兽类多样性一直是生物多样性和生态环境监测与评价的重要指示类群之一(周立志和马勇,2002)。统计动物毛发、粪便、巢穴、叫声、足迹等动物痕迹以及直接观察等方法已被广泛用于兽类物种监测和种群密度估计(Eberhardt and Van Etten,1956;Bider,1968;Gannon     

Optimising camera trap surveys for the Carpentarian Pseudantechinus (Pseudantechinus mimulus) in northwest Queensland

The Carpentarian Pseudantechinus (Pseudantechinus mimulus) is a poorly studied dasyurid marsupial that inhabits rocky outcrops in the Mount Isa Inlier bioregion in Queensland and the Gulf Coastal and Gulf Fall and Uplands bioregions in the Northern Territory. It is readily detected by passive infrared triggered camera traps (‘camera traps’). Camera trap data can be used to develop detection probability estimates from which activity patterns can be inferred, but no effort has previously been made to determine changes in the detectability of P. mimulus throughout the year. We undertook a 13-month baited camera trap survey across nine sampling periods at 60 locations of known historic presence or nearby suitable habitat to assess the change in detection rates and detection probabilities of P. mimulus across a year. Detection probabilities were calculated from camera trap data within a single-species, multi-season occupancy framework to determine optimal survey timing. Detection probability data were used to calculate the likelihood of false absences to determine optimal survey duration. We recorded 2493 detections of P. mimulus over 10 966 camera days. Detection probability ranged from 0.009 to 0.179 and was significantly higher from April to October than from November to March. The likelihood of false absences varied by sampling period and desired level of confidence. We find that camera trap surveys for P. mimulus are best conducted from April to October, but optimal survey duration is dependent upon the time of year and desired level of confidence that an observed absence from a given site reflects a true absence at that site. Attaining a minimum of 80% confidence of absence requires as few as 9 days of survey effort in May to 16 days of survey effort in October.     

Studying the quantity component of seed dispersal effectiveness from exclosure treatments and camera trapping

The quantity component of effectiveness of seed dispersal by animals is determined by two events: fruit removal (intensity of the interaction) and animal visitation to the plant (frequency of interactions). Considering dispersal of Prosopis flexuosa seeds as case study, this work aimed at investigating the strengths and weaknesses of the two methods for assessing the quantity component of seed dispersal effectiveness: exclosures and camera traps. Prosopis fruits were offered for 48 hr. Exclosure treatments were performed using two types of wire‐screen cages, allowing access to ants (“closed exclosure”) and to small mammals up to 100 g (“open to small mammals”), and a treatment without exclosure (“open to all removers”). The camera trapping experiment was carried out using vertically oriented cameras placed at approximately 1.80 m height and focused on the fruits. The cameras were set in “motion detect mode,” taking series of three consecutive photographs. The exclosures largely allowed estimation of fruit removal by size‐based groups of animals, but did not provide information on species identity. In contrast, camera traps were able to identify all visitors to species level and could not only determine the number of visits by each species but also the proportion of visits, which resulted in removal of fruits. Camera trapping allowed discriminating among small mammals playing different roles, without underestimating fruit removal by scatter‐hoarding species. The quality of estimation of the quantity component of seed dispersal is remarkably better when the camera trapping method is applied. Additional information obtained, such as activity patterns of visitors, can contribute to a better understanding of the seed dispersal process.     

Camera traps and guard observations as an alternative to researcher observation for studying anthropogenic foraging

Foraging by wildlife on anthropogenic foods can have negative impacts on both humans and wildlife. Addressing this issue requires reliable data on the patterns of anthropogenic foraging by wild animals, but while direct observation by researchers can be highly accurate, this method is also costly and labor‐intensive, making it impractical in the long‐term or over large spatial areas. Camera traps and observations by guards employed to deter animals from fields could be efficient alternative methods of data collection for understanding patterns of foraging by wildlife in crop fields. Here, we investigated how data on crop‐foraging by chacma baboons and vervet monkeys collected by camera traps and crop guards predicted data collected by researchers, on a commercial farm in South Africa. We found that data from camera traps and field guard observations predicted crop loss and the frequency of crop‐foraging events from researcher observations for crop‐foraging by baboons and to a lesser extent for vervets. The effectiveness of cameras at capturing crop‐foraging events was dependent on their position on the field edge. We believe that these alternatives to direct observation by researchers represent an efficient and low‐cost method for long‐term and large‐scale monitoring of foraging by wildlife on crops.     

Does variation between dry and wet seasons affect tropical forest mammals' occupancy and detectability by camera traps? Case study from the Udzungwa Mountains,Tanzania

The increasing use of camera trapping coupled to occupancy analysis to study terrestrial mammals has opened the way to inferential studies that besides estimating the probability of presence explicitly consider detectability. This in turn allows considering factors that can potentially confound the estimation of occupancy and detection probability, including seasonal variations in rainfall. To address this, we conducted a systematic camera trapping survey in the Udzungwa Mountains of Tanzania by deploying twenty camera traps for 30 days in dry and wet seasons and used dynamic occupancy modelling to determine the effect of season on estimated occupancy and detection probability for species with >10 capture events. The sampling yielded 7657 and 6015 images in dry and wet seasons, respectively, belonging to 21 mammal species. Models with no season dependency and with season‐dependent detectability were best supported, indicating that neither colonization nor extinction varied with seasons and hence occupancy did not vary. Only bush pig (Potamochoerus larvatus) showed a significant decrease in detectability from dry to wet seasons. Our study indicates that seasonal variation in rainfall may have limited effect on occupancy and detectability of resident mammals in Udzungwa rainforests; however, it remains a factor to consider when designing future studies.     

Community of small mammals along an elevational gradient in Biological Reserve of Serra do Japi,municipality of Jundiaí‐SP,Brazil

Studies of elevational gradients in forests are particularly interesting for the considerable differences that can be observed over short distances, such as in vegetation and temperature. Different taxonomic groups display varying types of distribution patterns along elevational gradients, with unimodal distribution being recognised as the most common pattern. The distribution of species can be affected by a range of factors that include, biotic, spatial, climatic, historic and energetic. Small mammals represent an ideal model for studies about distribution and habitat use as they can be highly abundant, tend to have different diets and use space differently. The aims of this study are to build a comprehensive understanding of the community of small mammals of the Biological Reserve of Serra do Japi and to explore its distribution pattern along elevational gradients. We investigated the influence of biomass of arthropods, fruits and seeds and percentage of ground cover, canopy cover and vertical vegetation at richness and abundance of small mammals at three different elevations. To accomplish this, we used seventy‐two pitfall traps of 63 L to capture small mammals and distributed them equally across three elevations defined as low (880–899 m), intermediate (1046–1089 m) and high (1170–1189 m). Each elevation had three lines or replicas of traps. Throughout the study, we captured one hundred and fourteen individuals belonging to eleven species of small mammals. The presence of rare and endemic species demonstrates the importance of conservation and maintenance of the Biological Reserve of Serra do Japi. In regard to the distribution of species, despite the short gradient range, we found a unimodal pattern and a positive correlation between ground cover (fallen twigs and branches up to 1 m high) and richness and abundance of small mammals. More ground cover can reduce the effects of competition and predation on small mammals’ communities. Abstract in Portuguese is available with online material.     

A preliminary study of the biodiversity of ground-dwelling small mammals in Badagongshan National Nature Reserve,Hunan Province

Little is known about the diversity patterns of mammals in the Badagongshan National Nature Reserve, Hunan Province, although the reserve was established in 1982. During September and October of 2012, the diversity of ground-dwelling small mammals was investigated using live traps, pitfalls and camera traps in a permanent forest dynamics plot and other nearby vegetation types. We captured 12 species of ground-dwelling small mammals, including eight species of Rodentia and four species of Insectivora. Presently, there are 20 species of ground-dwelling small mammals recorded in the Badagongshan National Nature Reserve, including six new species recorded in this study, i.e., Eothenomys melanogaster, Typhlomys cinereus, Apodemus draco, Anourosorex squamipes, Blarinella griselda, and Sorex thibetanus. The body mass of the individuals captured by live traps was much larger than that of the individuals captured by pitfall traps. Our study also indicates that the diversity patterns of ground-dwelling small mammals are affected by the habitat types. Therefore, we recommend that a combination of different methods be used to effectively monitor mammal diversity in the Badagongshan National Nature Reserve.     

八大公山自然保护区地栖性小兽多样性初步研究

湖南省八大公山自然保护区自1982年设立以来, 尚未进行过兽类资源的深入研究。为此, 作者于2012年9–10月, 采用笼捕法、陷阱法和红外相机法等对保护区内森林动态永久监测样地及周边常见植被类型中的地栖性小型兽类多样性进行了初步研究。共捕获小型兽类12种, 其中啮齿目8种, 食虫目4种。结合以往记录, 该保护区现已记录的小型兽类有20种, 而本次调查新增分布记录物种6种, 即黑腹绒鼠(Eothenomys melanogaster)、猪尾鼠(Typhlomys cinereus)、中华姬鼠(Apodemus draco)、四川短尾鼩(Anourosorex squamipes)、灰黑齿鼩鼱(Blarinella griselda)和藏鼩鼱(Sorex thibetanus)。陷阱法所捕获个体的体重显著小于笼捕法。此外, 不同生境类型对小兽多样性有重要影响。建议综合采用多种调查方法对整个保护区兽类多样性资源进行深入监测与研究。     

Component processes of detection probability in camera-trap studies: understanding the occurrence of false-negatives

Camera-trap studies in the wild record true-positive data, but data loss from false-negatives (i.e. an animal is present but not recorded) is likely to vary and widely impact data quality. Detection probability is defined as the probability of recording an animal if present in the study area. We propose a framework of sequential processes within detection – a pass, trigger, image registration, and images being of sufficient quality. Using closed-circuit television (CCTV) combined with camera-trap arrays we quantified variation in, and drivers of, these processes for three medium-sized mammal species. We also compared trigger success of wet and dry otter Lutra lutra, as an example of a semiaquatic species. Data loss from failed trigger, failed registration and poor capture quality varied between species, camera-trap model and settings, and were affected by different environmental and animal variables. Distance had a negative effect on trigger probability and a positive effect on registration probability. Faster animals had both reduced trigger and registration probabilities. Close passes (1 m) frequently did not generate triggers, resulting in over 20% data loss for all species. Our results, linked to the framework describing processes, can inform study design to minimize or account for data loss during analysis and interpretation.