Comparison of the four mouse fasciclin-containing genes expression patterns during valvuloseptal morphogenesis

All four mammalian fasciclin-containing genes are expressed in the adult valves and are localized in partially overlapping and reciprocal patterns during cardiovascular development. Spatiotemporal comparison of the fasciclin-containing secreted adhesion genes, TGFbeta induced clone H3 (betaigH3) and periostin, revealed that they are co-localized within the outflow tract endocardial cushions, but that betaigH3 expression is restricted to the septal cushions within the atrioventricular canal. Conversely, the fasciclin-containing transmembrane gene, stabilin-1, is predominately expressed in the endocardial layer overlaying the cushions and lining the developing heart. However, expression of the fasciclin-containing transmembrane gene, stabilin-2 is only present in the post-natal mature valve endothelial cells. These data illustrate for the first time that the primitive endocardial cushions dynamically express multiple fasciclin-containing adhesion molecules as they undergo the key steps of seeding, proliferation, differentiation, fusion, mesenchymal condensation and remodeling during mouse heart development.     

Atrioventricular valve development during late embryonic and postnatal stages involves condensation and extracellular matrix remodeling

Although the signaling molecules regulating the early stages of valvular development have been well described, little is known on the late steps leading to mature fibrous leaflets. We hypothesized that atrioventricular (AV) valve development continues after birth to adjust to the postnatal maturation of the heart. By doing a systematic analysis of the AV valves of mice from embryonic day (E) 15.5 to 8 weeks old, we identified key developmental steps that map the maturation process of embryonic cushion-like leaflets into adult stress-resistant valves. Condensation of the mesenchymal cells occurred between E15.5 and E18.5 and was accompanied by increased cellular proliferation and adhesion. Cellular proliferation also contributed transiently to the concomitant elongation of the leaflets. Patterning of the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins along the AV axis was achieved 1 week after birth, with the differentiation of two reciprocal structural regions, glycosaminoglycans and versican at the atrial side, and densely packed collagen fibers at the ventricular side. Formation and remodeling of the nodular thickenings at the closure points of the leaflets occurred between N4.5 and N11.5. In conclusion, AV valve development during late embryonic and postnatal stages includes condensation, elongation, formation of nodular thickenings, and remodeling of tension-resistant ECM proteins.     

Twist2的生物学功能及其分子机制

碱性螺旋-环-螺旋(Basic helix-loop-helix protein,bHLH)家族成员Twist2对间质细胞系的发生和发育起转录调节作用,经直接或间接机制发挥分子开关功能,从而激活或抑制靶基因。Twist2能直接结合DNA上 E-box保守序列,招募共激活物或抑制剂;能与E蛋白调节因子发生蛋白-蛋白相互作用,干扰激活或抑制功能。Twist2无义突变导致Setleis综合征。对Twist2的早期研究多集中在骨骼发育,随后在多种肿瘤中发现其有表达差异,研究表明Twist2在肿瘤的上皮-间质转化(Epithelial-mesenchymal transition,EMT)中发挥着重要作用。Twist2参与了多条通路的调控,其调控作用的发挥受到时空表达、磷酸化、二聚化和细胞定位的调节,在机体的正常发育、体内平衡和疾病发生机制中研究Twist2的作用显得尤为重要。文章对Twist2在成骨分化、肿瘤形成和EMT中的作用及其分子机制进行综述,以便帮助了解Twist2的生物学功能,为进一步在疾病的诊断、发展、以及治疗等方面的转化应用研究提供依据。     

Wnt signaling in heart valve development and osteogenic gene induction

Wnt signaling mediated by β-catenin has been implicated in early endocardial cushion development, but its roles in later stages of heart valve maturation and homeostasis have not been identified. Multiple Wnt ligands and pathway genes are differentially expressed during heart valve development. At E12.5, Wnt2 is expressed in cushion mesenchyme, whereas Wnt4 and Wnt9b are predominant in overlying endothelial cells. At E17.5, both Wnt3a and Wnt7b are expressed in the remodeling atrioventricular (AV) and semilunar valves. In addition, the TOPGAL Wnt reporter transgene is active throughout the developing AV and semilunar valves at E16.5, with more localized expression in the stratified valve leaflets after birth. In chicken embryo aortic valves, genes characteristic of osteogenic cell lineages including periostin, osteonectin, and Id2 are expressed specifically in the collagen-rich fibrosa layer at E14. Treatment of E14 aortic valve interstitial cells (VICs) in culture with osteogenic media results in increased expression of multiple genes associated with bone formation. Treatment of VIC with Wnt3a leads to nuclear localization of β-catenin and induction of periostin and matrix gla protein but does not induce genes associated with later stages of osteogenesis. Together, these studies provide evidence for Wnt signaling as a regulator of endocardial cushion maturation as well as valve leaflet stratification, homeostasis, and pathogenesis.     

Endothelial deletion of ADAM17 in mice results in defective remodeling of the semilunar valves and cardiac dysfunction in adults

Global inactivation of the metalloproteinase ADAM17 during mouse development results in perinatal lethality and abnormalities of the heart, including late embryonic cardiomegaly and thickened semilunar and atrioventricular valves. These defects have been attributed in part to a lack of ADAM17-mediated processing of HB-EGF, as absence of soluble HB-EGF results in similar phenotypes. Because valvular mesenchymal cells are largely derived from cardiac endothelial cells, we generated mice with a floxed Adam17 allele and crossed these animals with Tie2-Cre transgenics to focus on the role of endothelial ADAM17 in valvulogenesis. We find that although hearts from late-stage embryos with ablation of endothelial ADAM17 appear normal, an increase in valve size and cell number is evident, but only in the semilunar cusps. Unlike Hbegf^?/? valves, ADAM17-null semilunar valves do not differ from controls in acute cell proliferation at embryonic day 14.5 (E14.5), suggesting compensatory processing of HB-EGF. However, levels of the proteoglycan versican are significantly reduced in mutant hearts early in valve remodeling (E12.5). After birth, aortic valve cusps from mutants are not only hyperplastic but also show expansion of the glycosaminoglycan-rich component, with the majority of adults exhibiting aberrant compartmentalization of versican and increased deposition of collagen. The inability of mutant outflow valve precursors to transition into fully mature cusps is associated with decreased postnatal viability, progressive cardiomegaly, and systolic dysfunction. Together, our data indicate that ADAM17 is required in valvular endothelial cells for regulating cell content as well as extracellular matrix composition and organization in semilunar valve remodeling and homeostasis.     

Altered versican cleavage in ADAMTS5 deficient mice; a novel etiology of myxomatous valve disease

In fetal valve maturation the mechanisms by which the relatively homogeneous proteoglycan-rich extracellular matrix (ECM) of endocardial cushions is replaced by a specialized and stratified ECM found in mature valves are not understood. Therefore, we reasoned that uncovering proteases critical for ‘remodeling’ the proteoglycan rich (extracellular matrix) ECM may elucidate novel mechanisms of valve development. We have determined that mice deficient in ADAMTS5, (A Disintegrin-like And Metalloprotease domain with ThromboSpondin-type 1 motifs) which we demonstrated is expressed predominantly by valvular endocardium during cardiac valve maturation, exhibited enlarged valves. ADAMTS5 deficient valves displayed a reduction in cleavage of its substrate versican, a critical cardiac proteoglycan. In vivo reduction of versican, in Adamts5^−/− mice, achieved through Vcan heterozygosity, substantially rescued the valve anomalies. An increase in BMP2 immunolocalization, Sox9 expression and mesenchymal cell proliferation were observed in Adamts5^−/− valve mesenchyme and correlated with expansion of the spongiosa (proteoglycan-rich) region in Adamts5^−/− valve cusps. Furthermore, these data suggest that ECM remodeling via ADAMTS5 is required for endocardial to mesenchymal signaling in late fetal valve development. Although adult Adamts5^−/− mice are viable they do not recover from developmental valve anomalies and have myxomatous cardiac valves with 100% penetrance. Since the accumulation of proteoglycans is a hallmark of myxomatous valve disease, based on these data we hypothesize that a lack of versican cleavage during fetal valve development may be a potential etiology of adult myxomatous valve disease.     

Membrane-type MMPs enable extracellular matrix permissiveness and mesenchymal cell proliferation during embryogenesis

Peri-cellular remodeling of mesenchymal extracellular matrices is considered a prerequisite for cell proliferation, motility and development. Here we demonstrate that membrane-type 3 MMP, MT3-MMP, is expressed in mesenchymal tissues of the skeleton and in peri-skeletal soft connective tissue. Consistent with this localization, MT3-MMP-deficient mice display growth inhibition tied to a decreased viability of mesenchymal cells in skeletal tissues. We document that MT3-MMP works as a major collagenolytic enzyme, enabling cartilage and bone cells to cleave high-density fibrillar collagen and modulate their resident matrix to make it permissive for proliferation and migration. Collectively, these data uncover a novel extracellular matrix remodeling mechanism required for proper function of mesenchymal cells. The physiological significance of MT3-MMP is highlighted in mice double deficient for MT1-MMP and MT3-MMP. Double deficiency transcends the combined effects of the individual single deficiencies and leads to severe embryonic defects in palatogenesis and bone formation incompatible with life. These defects are directly tied to loss of indispensable collagenolytic activities required in collagen-rich mesenchymal tissues for extracellular matrix remodeling and cell proliferation during embryogenesis.