Alterations in the Fatty Acid Composition of Rat Brain Cells (Neurons, Astrocytes, and Oligodendrocytes) and of Subcellular Fractions (Myelin and Synaptosomes) Induced by a Diet Devoid of n-3 Fatty Acids

Abstract: Rats were fed through four generations with a semisynthetic diet containing 1.0% sunflower oil (6.7 mg/ g n-6 fatty acids, 0.04 mg/g n-3 fatty acids). Ten days before mating, half of the animals received a diet in which sunflower was replaced by soya oil (6.6 mg/g n-6 fatty acids, 0.8 mg/g n-3 fatty acids) and analyses were performed on their pups. Fatty acid analysis in isolated cellular and subcellular material from sunflower-fed animals showed that the total amount of unsaturated fatty acids was not reduced in any cellular or subcellular fraction (except in 60-day-old rat neurons). All material from animals fed with sunflower oil showed an important reduction in the docosahexaenoic acid content, compensated (except in 60-day-old rat neurons) by an increase in the n-6 fatty acids (mainly C22:5 n-6). When comparing 60-day-old animals fed with soya oil or sunflower oil, the n-3/n-6 fatty acid ratio was reduced 16-fold in oligodendrocytes, 12-fold in myelin, twofold in neurons, sixfold in synaptosomes, and threefold in astrocytes. No trienes were detected. Saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids were hardly affected. This study provides data on the fatty acid composition of isolated brain cells.     

Alteration in Fatty Acid Composition of Adult Rat Brain Capillaries and Choroid Plexus Induced by a Diet Deficient in n-3 Fatty Acids: Slow Recovery After Substitution with a Nondeficient Diet

Wistar rats were fed for three generations with a semisynthetic diet containing either 1.5% sunflower oil (940 mg% of C18:2n-6, 6 mg% of C18:3n-3) or 1.9% soya oil (940 mg% of C18:2n-6, 130 mg% of C18:3n-3). At 60 days of age, the male offspring of the third generation were killed. The fatty acyl composition of isolated capillaries and choroid plexus was determined. The major changes noted in the fatty acid profile of isolated capillaries were a reduction (threefold) in the level of docosahexaenoic acid and, consequently, a fourfold increase in docosapentaenoic acid in sunflower oil-fed animals. The total percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids was close to that in the soya oil-fed rats, but the ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids was reduced by threefold. In the choroid plexus, the C22:6n-3 content was also reduced, but by 2.6-fold, whereas the C22:5n-6 content was increased by 2.3-fold and the ratio of n-3/n-6 fatty acids was reduced by 2.4-fold. When the diet of sunflower oil-fed rats was replaced with a diet containing soya oil at 60 days of age, the recovery in content of n-6 and n-3 fatty acids started immediately after diet substitution; it progressed slowly to reach normal values after 2 months for C22:6n-5 and 2.5 months for C22:6n-3. The recovery in altered fatty acids of choroid plexus was also immediate and very fast. Recovery in content of C22:5n-6 and C22:6n-3 was complete by 46 days after diet substitution.     

Conservation of Docosahexaenoic Acid in Rod Outer Segments of Rat Retina During n-3 and n-6 Fatty Acid Deficiency

We investigated the mechanism by which rat retina conserves docosahexaenoic acid during essential fatty acid deficiency. Weanling female albino rats were fed diets containing either 10% by weight hydrogenated coconut oil, safflower oil, or linseed oil for 15 weeks. Plasma and rod outer segment (ROS) membranes were prepared for fatty acid and phospholipid molecular species analysis. In addition, retinas were removed for morphometric analysis. We found the following: (1) Plasma phospholipids and cholesterol esters from coconut oil, safflower oil, and linseed oil diet groups were enriched in 20:3(n-9), 20:4(n-6), and 20:5(n-3), respectively. The levels of these 20-carbon fatty acids in the ROS, however, were only slightly affected by diet. (2) The fatty acids and molecular species of ROS phospholipids from the safflower oil and coconut oil groups showed a selective replacement of 22:6(n-3) with 22:5(n-6), as evidenced by a reduction of the 22:6(n-3)-22:6(n-3) molecular species and an increase in the 22:5(n-6)-22:6(n-3) species. (3) The renewal rate of ROS integral proteins, determined by autoradiography, was 10% per day for each diet group. (4) Morphometric analysis of retinas showed no differences in the outer nuclear layer area or in ROS length between the three groups. We conclude that the conservation of 22:6(n-3) in ROS is not accomplished through reductions in the rate of membrane turnover, the total amount of ROS membranes, or in the number of rod cells. The retina may conserve 22:6(n-3) through recycling within the retina or between the retina and the pigment epithelium, or through the selective uptake of 22-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids from the circulation.     

Interactive effects of dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids and chronic ethanol intoxication on synaptic membrane lipid composition and fluidity in rats.

The influence of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on fatty acid composition, cholesterol and phospholipid content as well as 'fluidity' (assessed by fluorescence polarization of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH) probes) of brain synaptic plasma membranes (SPM) and their interactions with chronic ethanol effects were studied in rats fed for two generations with diets either devoid of (n-3) fatty acids (sunflower oil diet), rich in alpha-linolenic acid (soya oil diet) or in long chain (n-3) fatty acids (sunflower + cod liver oil diet). Results were compared with rats fed standard lab chow. Sunflower oil led to an increase in the (n-6)/(n-3) ratio in the membranes with an increase of the 'fluidity' at membrane apolar level; sunflower + cod liver oil decreased the (n-6)/(n-3) ratio without affecting membrane 'fluidity' while no difference was seen between the SPM of rats fed soya oil and standard diet. After 3 weeks alcohol intoxication in rat fed the standard diet: oleic alpha-linoleic acids and cholesterol levels were increased, arachidonic acid and the double bond index/saturated fatty acids were decreased and there was a decrease of 'fluidity' in the lipid core of the SPM. Soya oil almost totally abolished these usually observed changes in the SPM fatty acids composition but increased oleic acid and cholesterol without any change in fluidity. Sunflower oil led to the same general alterations of fatty acid as seen with standard diet but to a greater extent, with decrease of the 'fluidity" at the apolar level and in the region probed by TMA-DPH. When sunflower oil was supplemented with cod liver oil, oleic and alpha-linoleic acids were increased while the 'fluidity' of the apolar core of SPM was decreased. So, the small changes in fatty acid pattern seem able to modulate neural properties i.e. the responses to a neurotoxic like ethanol. A structurally specific role of PUFA is demonstrated by the pernicious effects of the alpha-linolenic acid deficient diet which are not totally prevented by the supply of long chain (n-3) PUFA.     

Brain Phospholipids as Dietary Source of (n-3) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids for Nervous Tissue in the Rat

Abstract: In a previous work, we calculated the dietary α-linolenic requirements (from vegetable oil triglycerides) for obtaining and maintaining a physiological level of (n-3) fatty acids in developing animal membranes as determined by the cervonic acid content [22:6(n-3), docosahexaenoic acid]. The aim of the present study was to measure the phospholipid requirement, as these compounds directly provide the very long polyunsaturated fatty acids found in membranes. Two weeks before mating, eight groups of female rats (previously fed peanut oil deficient in α-linolenic acid) were fed different semisynthetic diets containing 6% African peanut oil supplemented with different quantities of phospholipids obtained from bovine brain lipid extract, so as to add (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids to the diet. An additional group was fed peanut oil with rapeseed oil, and served as control. Pups were fed the same diet as their respective mothers, and were killed at weaning. Forebrain, sciatic nerve, retina, nerve endings, myelin, and liver were analyzed. We conclude that during the combined maternal and perinatal period, the (n-3) fatty acid requirement for adequate deposition of (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids in the nervous tissue (and in liver) of pups is lower if animals are fed (n-3) very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids found in brain phospholipids [this study, ˜60 mg of (n-3) fatty acids/100 g of diet, i.e., ˜130 mg/1,000 kcal] rather than α-linolenic acid from vegetable oil triglycerides [200 mg of (n-3) fatty acids/100 g of diet, i.e., ˜440 mg/1,000 kcal].     

Lipid composition of lactational diets influences the fatty acid profile of the progeny before and after suckling

The purpose of the present study was to compare the influence of adding no or 8% fat of varying sources (coconut oil, fish oil, rapeseed oil and sunflower oil) to diets for sows 1 week prior to farrowing and during lactation on the composition of fatty acids in plasma and tissues of the progeny while sucking and 3 weeks after weaning from the sow. A control diet without supplemental fat and four diets supplemented with 8% of coconut oil, rapeseed oil, fish oil or sunflower oil were provided to lactating sows (n = 15), and during the post-weaning period the same weaner diet was provided to all piglets (n = 15 litters), which were housed litterwise. The dietary ratio of n-6:n-3 fatty acids of the maternal diets largely influenced the progeny, as the ratio varying from 1.2 (fish oil) to 12.2 (sunflower oil) in the sow milk was reflected in plasma and adipose tissues of the sucking progeny. The liver showed similar variations according to dietary treatments, but a lower n-6:n-3 fatty acids ratio. From day 4 to later on during the suckling period, the concentration of C14:0, C16:0 and C18:1 in the liver of the piglets decreased, irrespective of the dietary treatments of sows. In plasma and liver, the total concentration of saturated fatty acids (SAFA), monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) did not differ markedly in piglets sucking sows fed different dietary fatty acids, whereas the adipose tissue of piglets sucking sows fed sunflower oil and coconut oil showed the highest proportion of PUFA and SAFA, respectively. Weaning lowered the concentration of lipid-soluble extracts in plasma and the concentration of fatty acids in the liver of the piglets. Within the post-weaning period, dietary treatments of sows, rather than age of piglets, influenced the fatty acid composition of plasma and adipose tissue of the piglets, whereas the hepatic fatty acid profile was more affected by the age of the piglets during the post-weaning period. This study shows that the fatty acid profile of plasma and tissues of the progeny is highly dependent on the maternal dietary composition, and that the dietary impact persists for up to 3 weeks after the suckling period.     

Maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids alter cardiac ventricle fatty acid composition, prostaglandin and thromboxane production in growing chicks

The effects of feeding n-6 and n-3 fatty acids to broiler hens on cardiac ventricle fatty acid composition, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and thromboxane A2 (TXA2) production of hatched chicks were investigated. Fertile eggs obtained from hens fed diets supplemented with 3.5% sunflower oil (Low n-3), 1.75% sunflower+1.75% fish oil (Medium n-3), or 3.5% fish oil (High n-3) were incubated. The hatched chicks were fed a diet containing 18:3 n-3, but devoid of longer chain n-6 and n-3 fatty acids for 42 days. Arachidonic acid content was lower in the cardiac ventricle of High n-3 and Medium n-3 compared to Low n-3 birds for up to 2 weeks (P<0.002). Long chain n-3 fatty acids were higher in the cardiac ventricle of chicks from hens fed High and Medium n-3 diets when compared to chicks from hens fed the Low n-3 diet. Differences in long chain n-3 fatty acids persisted up to four weeks of age (P<0.001). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMNC) of 7-day-old High n-3 broilers produced significantly lower PGE2 and TXA2 than PBMNC from Low n-3 and Medium n-3 birds. These results indicate that maternal dietary n-3 fatty acids increases cardiac ventricle n-3 fatty acids while reducing arachidonic acid and ex vivo PGE2 and TXA2 production during growth in broiler chickens.     

Effect of an n-3 Fatty Acid-Deficient Diet on the Adenosine-Dependent Melatonin Release in Cultured Rat Pineal

Abstract: We studied the effect of a diet deficient in n-3 fatty acids on the adenosine-dependent melatonin release from cultured rat pineal gland after stimulation by 5'- N -ethylcarboxamidoadenosine (NECA), an A₂ adenosine agonist. Experiments were conducted with 2-month-old rats raised on semipurified diets containing either peanut oil (n-3 deficients) or peanut plus rapeseed oil (controls). The proportion of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6 n-3) in the pineal total lipid fraction and in phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine was significantly decreased in n-3-deficient rats. This was compensated for partially by an increase in 22:4 n-6 and 22:5 n-6 levels. The activity of the cultured rat pineal, in terms of cyclic AMP content and N -acetylserotonin and melatonin release in the medium, was lower after stimulation by 10^-5 mol/L NECA in the group fed peanut oil than in the group fed peanut plus rapeseed oil. The increased ratio of n-6/n-3 fatty acids in pineal total lipids and the major glycerophospholipids (phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine) may have an important influence on the rat pineal responses. The results are discussed in the context of changes in membrane-bound proteins, including enzymes and/or receptors involved in the rat pineal gland function.     

Gender-related long-term effects in adult rats by perinatal dietary ratio of n-6/n-3 fatty acids

Epidemiological studies in humans have shown that perinatal nutrition affects health later in life. We have previously shown that the ratio of n-6 to n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the maternal diet affects serum leptin levels and growth of the suckling pups. The aim of the present study was to investigate the long-term effects of various ratios of the dietary n-6 and n-3 PUFA during the perinatal period on serum leptin, insulin, and triacylglycerol, as well as body growth in the adult offspring. During late gestation and throughout lactation, rats were fed an isocaloric diet containing 7 wt% fat, either as linseed oil (n-3 diet), soybean oil (n-6/n-3 diet), or sunflower oil (n-6 diet). At 3 wk of age, the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratios in the serum phospholipids of the offspring were 2.5, 8.3, and 17.5, respectively. After weaning, all pups were given a standard chow. At the 28th postnatal wk, mean body weight and fasting insulin levels were significantly increased in the rats fed the n-6/n-3 diet perinatally compared with the other groups. The systolic blood pressure and serum triacylglycerol levels were only increased in adult male rats of the same group. These data suggest that the balance between n-6 and n-3 PUFA during perinatal development affects several metabolic parameters in adulthood, especially in the male animals.     

Response of rat heart membranes and associated ion-transporting ATPases to dietary lipid

The effects of different dietary fat intake on the lipid composition and enzyme behaviour of sarcolemmal (Na+ + K+)ATPase and sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase from rat heart were investigated. Rat diets were supplemented with either sunflower seed oil (unsatd./satd. 5.6) or sheep kidney fat (unsatd./satd. 0.8). Significant changes in the phospholipid fatty acid composition were observed in both membranes after 9 weeks dietary lipid treatment. For both membranes, the total saturated/unsaturated fatty acid levels were unaffected by the dietary lipid treatment, however the proportions of the major unsaturated fatty acids were altered. Animals fed the sunflower seed oil diet exhibited an increase in n-6 fatty acids, including linoleic (18:2(n-6] and arachidonic (20:4(n-6] while the sheep kidney fat dietary rats were higher in n-3 fatty acids, principally docosahexaenoic (22:6), with the net result being a higher n-6/n-3 ratio in the sunflower seed oil group compared to sheep kidney fat dietary animals. Fluorescence polarization indicated that the fluidity of sarcoplasmic reticular membrane was greater than that of sarcolemmal membrane, with a dietary lipid-induced decrease in fluidity being observed in the sarcoplasmic reticular membrane from sheep kidney fat dietary animals. Despite these significant changes in membrane composition and physical properties, neither the specific activity nor the temperature-activity relationship (Arrhenius profile) of the associated ATPases were altered. These results suggest that with regard to the parameters measured in this study, the two ion-transporting ATPases are not modulated by changes which occur in the membrane lipid composition as a result of the diet.     

High dietary fish oil alters the brain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition

Feeding adult rats a 17% corn-oil diet for 8 weeks did not change brain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) compared to rats fed 2.2% corn oil (with 2.2% lard added). When the corn-oil diet was supplemented with 14.5% cod liver oil or 12.5% salmon oil, the fatty acid composition of brain PUFA was significantly altered, even if alpha-tocopherol was added to the salmon-oil diet. Comparing salmon-oil- and cod-liver-oil-fed animals with corn-oil-fed animals, arachidonic acid 22:4(n-6) and 22:5(n-6) were reduced, and 20:5(n-3), 22:5(n-3) and 22:6(n-3) were increased. Liver fatty acids were also significantly altered. Thus, the brain is not protected against a large excess of very-long-chain n-3 PUFA, which increase n-3/n-6 ratio and could lead to abnormal function, and which might be difficult to reverse.     

Effect of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids on contractile function of hearts isolated from sedentary and trained rats

Moderate physical training induced a decrease in arterial blood pressure in fish oil-fed rats as compared to sunflower seed oil-fed rats. The purpose of this study was to determine if these changes were due to modifications of the left ventricular function of the heart. Forty rats were fed a semi-purified diet containing either 10% sunflower seed oil or 10% fish oil (EPAX 3000TG, Pronova). Each dietary group was assigned to two sub-groups, one being constituted by sedentary animals and the other by trained animals. Training was achieved by daily running for 60 minutes at moderate intensity for three weeks. At the end of the training period, the animals were sacrificed and their hearts were immediately perfused according to the working mode. The phospholipid fatty acid composition and parameters of the left ventricular function were determined. Feeding fish oil markedly reduced the proportion of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA, 18:2 n-6, 20:4 n-6, 22:4 n-6 and 22:5 n-6) in cardiac phospholipids. The n-6 PUFA were replaced by n-3 PUFA (mainly docosahexaenoic acid). In sedentary animals, the fluid dynamic (aortic and coronary flow, cardiac output) was not modified by the diet. The heart rate was reduced (-10%) in n-3 PUFA-rich hearts. Physical training did not markedly alter the polyunsaturated fatty acid profile of cardiac phospholipids. Conversely, it reduced the heart rate, aortic flow and cardiac output (-11, -21 and -14%, respectively) at a similar extent in the two dietary groups. In a second set of experiments, the training period was repeated in animals fed a commercially available diet (A103, UAR) which simultaneously provided n-6 and n-3 fatty acids. In these dietary conditions, neither the aortic flow nor the heart rate was decreased by physical exercise. These results suggest that both n-6 and n-3 PUFA in the diet are necessary to ensure a good cardiac adaptation to moderate physical training. Furthermore, the fish oil-induced decrease in arterial blood pressure in trained animals was not related to changes in cardiac contractility, but to a decrease in vascular resistances. Moderate physical training + dietary n-3 PUFA might be used to prevent hypertension and cardiovascular diseases.     

Reversibility of the effects of dietary fish oil on the fatty acid composition of the brain and retina of growing chicks.

Dietary fish oil increases levels of (n-3) fatty acids in the brain and retina of younger animals but has less effect in adults. The duration of the effects of fish oil in young animals, as well as the extent of reversibility of the effects, are unknown. Laying hens were fed either a fish oil diet or a soybean oil-based control diet. Resulting chicks were assigned to three diet groups: chicks from fish oil and soybean oil hens were continued on fish oil and soybean oil diets, respectively, for 0, 3, 6, or 9 weeks, and additional chicks from the fish oil hens were fed the fish oil diet for 0, 3, or 6 weeks and then reversed to the soybean oil diet for a period of 3 weeks. The fatty acid composition of the brain, retina, liver, and serum of the reversal chicks was compared with chicks fed the fish oil diet only or the soybean oil diet only. Brain levels of docosahexaenoic acid (22:6(n-3)) decreased substantially when reversal from the fish oil diet to the control diet was begun at hatching, but did not decrease when reversal was begun at later times. Other (n-3) fatty acids in the brain, docosapentaenoic acid (22:5(n-3)) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5(n-3)), decreased substantially at all ages, and to a greater extent than 22:6(n-3). Brain arachidonic acid (20:4(n-6)), which was low in fish oil chicks, rose to control after reversal at hatching, but recovered only partially when reversal was begun at later times. A similar patterns was observed in the retina. Serum and liver (n-3) fatty acids fell to control in all reversal chicks, and (n-6) fatty acids increased to control, except in chicks reversed at 6 weeks. This study demonstrates that by 3 weeks of age the chick brain strongly resists diet-induced lowering of high levels of 22:6(n-3).     

Leptin levels in rat offspring are modified by the ratio of linoleic to alpha-linolenic acid in the maternal diet

The supply of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is important for optimal fetal and postnatal development. We have previously shown that leptin levels in suckling rats are reduced by maternal PUFA deficiency. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of maternal dietary intake of (n-3) and (n-6) PUFA on the leptin content in rat milk and serum leptin levels in suckling pups. For the last 10 days of gestation and throughout lactation, the rats were fed an isocaloric diet containing 7% linseed oil (n-3 diet), sunflower oil (n-6 diet), or soybean oil (n-6/n-3 diet). Body weight, body length, inguinal fat pad weight, and adipocyte size of the pups receiving the n-3 diet were significantly lower during the whole suckling period compared with n-6/n-3 fed pups. Body and fat pad weights of the n-6 fed pups were in between the other two groups at week one, but not different from the n-6/n-3 group at week 3. Feeding dams the n-3 diet resulted in decreased serum leptin levels in the suckling pups compared with pups in the n-6/n-3 group. The mean serum leptin levels of the n-6 pups were between the other two groups but not different from either group. There were no differences in the milk leptin content between the groups. These results show that the balance between the n-6 and n-3 PUFA in the maternal diet rather than amount of n-6 or n-3 PUFA per se could be important for adipose tissue growth and for maintaining adequate serum leptin levels in the offspring.     

Diet deficient in alpha-linolenic acid alters fatty acid composition and enzymatic properties of Na+, K+-ATPase isoenzymes of brain membranes in the adult rat

The effects of dietary (n-6)/(n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid balance on fatty acid composition, ouabain inhibition, and Na(+) dependence of Na(+), K(+)-ATPase isoenzymes of whole brain membranes were studied in 60-day-old rats fed over two generations a diet either devoid of alpha-linolenic acid [18:3(n-3)] (sunflower oil diet) or rich in 18:3(n-3) (soybean oil diet). In the brain membranes, the sunflower oil diet led to a dramatic decrease in docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3)] membrane content. The activities of Na(+), K(+)-ATPase isoenzymes were discriminated on the basis of their differential affinities for ouabain and their sensitivity to sodium concentration. The ouabain titration curve of Na(+), K(+)-ATPase activity displayed three inhibitory processes with markedly different affinity [i.e., low (alpha1), high (alpha2), and very high (alpha3)] for brain membranes of rats fed the sunflower oil diet, whereas the brain membranes of rats fed the soybean oil diet exhibited only two inhibitory processes, low (alpha1) and high (alpha2' = alpha2 + alpha3). Regardless of the diet, on the basis of the Na(+) dependence of Na(+), K(+)-ATPase activity, three isoenzymes were found: alpha1 form displaying an affinity 1.5- to 2-fold higher that of than alpha2 and 3-fold higher that of alpha3. In rats fed the sunflower oil diet, alpha2 isoenzyme exhibited higher affinity for sodium (Ka = 8.8 mmol/L) than that of rats fed the soybean oil diet (Ka = 11.7 mmol/L). These results suggest that the membrane lipid environment modulates the functional properties of Na(+), K(+)-ATPase isoenzymes of high ouabain affinity (alpha2).     

Dietary alpha-linolenic acid deficiency in adult rats for 7 months does not alter brain docosahexaenoic acid content, in contrast to liver, heart and testes.

In adult rats, 22:6(n - 3) dietary deficiency does not affect brain membranes, but has a significant effect on some other visceral organs. 60-day-old male rats fed a diet containing sufficient amounts of both linoleic and alpha-linolenic acid were divided into three groups. One group continued the same diet; the second was fed a diet containing 2% sunflower oil, the third was fed 10% sunflower oil (sunflower oil contains linoleic acid, but trace amount of alpha-linolenic acid). Animals were killed different times after receiving the new diets (1 to 31 weeks). For animals fed the diets containing only sunflower oil, deficiency in cervonic acid content (DHA, docosahexaenoic acid, 22:6(n - 3)) was not detected in whole brain, myelin or nerve endings within 31 weeks. In contrast, this acid progressively declined in liver, heart and testes up to 3 weeks and remained nearly stable thereafter. In parallel to the reduction of cervonic acid content, 22:5(n - 6) content increased in liver and heart, but not in testes. It also increased in brain, nerve endings and myelin from week 3, 6 and, 9 respectively. These results suggest that brain cervonic acid is highly preserved or is maintained at the expense of other organs.     

Dietary low linolenic acid compared with docosahexaenoic acid alter synaptic plasma membrane phospholipid fatty acid composition and sodium-potassium ATPase kinetics in developing rats

The objective of this study was to investigate if maternal dietary 20:4n-6 arachidonic acid (AA) and 22:6n-3 compared with adequate or low levels of 18:3n-3 linolenic acid (LNA) increases synaptic plasma membrane (SPM) cholesterol and phospholipid content, phospholipid 20:4n-6 and 22:6n-3 content, and Na,K-ATPase kinetics in rat pups at two and five weeks of age. At parturition, Sprague-Dawley rats were fed semi-purified diets containing either AA + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), adequate LNA (control; 18:2n-6 : 18:3n-3 ratio of 7.1 : 1) or low LNA (18:2n-6 : 18:3n-39 ratio of 835 : 1). During the first two weeks of life, the rat pups received only their dams' milk. After weaning, pups received the same diet as their respective dams to five weeks of age. No significant difference was observed among rat pups fed the diet treatments for SPM cholesterol or total and individual phospholipid content at two and five weeks of age. Fatty acid analysis revealed that maternal dietary AA + DHA, compared with feeding the dams the control diet or the low LNA diet, increased 20:4n-6 in phosphatidylserine and 22:6n-3 content of SPM phospholipids. Rats fed dietary AA + DHA or the control diet exhibited a significantly increased Vmax for SPM Na,K-ATPase. Diet treatment did not alter the Km (affinity) of SPM Na,K-ATPase in rat pups at two and five weeks of age. It is concluded that dietary AA + DHA does not alter SPM cholesterol and phospholipid content but increases the 22:6n-3 content of SPM phospholipids modulating activity of Na,K-ATPase.     

Evidence for peroxisomal retroconversion of adrenic acid (22:4(n-6)) and docosahexaenoic acids (22:6(n-3)) in isolated liver cells

The intracellular localization of the oxidation of [2-14C]adrenic acid (22:4(n-6)) and [1-14C]docosahexaenoic acid (22:6(n-3)) was studied in isolated liver cells. The oxidation of 22:4(n-6) was 2-3-times more rapid than the oxidation of 22:6(n-3), [1-14C]arachidonic acid (20:4(n-6)) or [1-14C]oleic acid (18:1). (+)-Decanoylcarnitine and lactate, both known to inhibit mitochondrial beta-oxidation, reduced the oxidation of 18:1 distinctly more efficiently than with 22:4(n-6) and 22:6(n-3). In liver cells from rats fed a diet containing partially hydrogenated fish oil, the oxidation of 22:6(n-6) and 22:6(n-3) was increased by 30-40% compared with cells from rats fed a standard pellet diet. With 18:1 as substrate, the amount of fatty acid oxidized was very similar in cells from animals fed standard pellets or partially hydrogenated fish oil. Shortened fatty acids were not produced from [5,6,8,9,11,12,14,15-3H]arachidonic acid. In hepatocytes from rats starved and refed 20% fructose, a large fraction of 14C from 22:4 was recovered in 14C-labelled C14-C18 fatty acids. Oxidation of 22:4 thus caused a high specific activity of the extramitochondrial pool of acetyl-CoA. The results suggest that 22:4(n-6) and to some extent 22:6(n-3) are oxidized by peroxisomal beta-oxidation and by this are retroconverted to arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid.     

Maternal Dietary Fat and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in the Developing Foetal Rat Brain

Abstract: Female rats were fed pursed diets containing 10% safflower oil, which is high in linoleic acid, from approximately 2 weeks prior to mating until the 14th day of gestation. They were then fed purified diets containing safflower oil, soybean oil (containing linoleic and linolenic acids), or hydrogenated coconut oil (essential fatty acid deficient). On days 16, 18, and 21 of gestation, foetuses were removed by caesarean section and the brains were subjected to fatty acid analysis. By day 16 of gestation, the ethanolamine glycerophospholipids and combined serine-inositol glycerophospholipids were rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly arachidonic acid. Between days 16 and 21 of gestation, there was a marked increase in the C₂₂-polyunsaturated acids in these glycerophospholipids, with 225n-6 deposited in foetuses from dams fed safflower or coconut oils and 22:6n-3 deposition occurring in the soybean oil group; the effects of essential fatty acid deficiency in this period were minimal. A similar pattern was evident in the choline glycerophospholipids but this fraction contained less of the polyunsaturated acids. The data are consistent with increased placental transfer of highly unsaturated fatty acids or increased foetal synthesis of these compounds during the last week of gestation, with the actual fatty acid pattern reflecting the dietary fat available to the dam.     

Effect of n-3 and n-6 fatty acids on hepatic microsomal lipid metabolism: a time course study

The present study examines the time dependent effects of n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on liver microsomal lipid metabolism in FVB mice fed a diet supplemented with a mixture of free fatty acids (mainly 18:3n-6 and 20:5n-3) at 25 mg/g diet. Significant changes in the fatty acid composition of total liver and microsomal lipids were observed after 7 days on the diets. Thereafter, some animals remained on the same diet while others were fed a diet supplemented with hydrogenated coconut oil (HCO). With the exception of 20:5n-3 which showed a slower recovery, establishment of the HCO pattern was rapid indicating that the diet-induced changes could be easily reversed. The unsaturation index, the cholesterol/phospholipid ratio and the microviscosity of the microsomal membranes were not affected by these dietary manipulations. Unsaturated fatty acid supplementation reduced the activity of ⁹ desaturase by 50%. Feeding the HCO diet to mice previously fed the EPA/GLA diet led to a progressive increase in ⁹ desaturase activity, reaching 80% of the day zero values after 14 days. The monoene content of hepatic total lipids reflected, in most cases, the changes in enzyme activity. This study shows that a low dose of a n-3 and n-6 free fatty acid mixture increases the quantities of members of the n-3 family, without loss of n-6 fatty acids in microsomal membranes and modifies the activity of ⁹ desaturase without altering the microsome physicochemical parameters.