The disappearance of Dutch malaria and the Rockefeller Foundation

Sixty years ago Professor Nico Swellengrebel wrote his famous book 'Malaria in the Netherlands' (Swellengrebel and de Buck, 1938). At that time tertian malaria was still endemic, with its epidemic ups and downs. Malaria disappeared as recently as 1960 and the Rockefeller Foundation (RF) contributed substantially to this effect. The Rockefeller Archives proved a valuable source of anecdotal information, which puts the scientific publications of the Dutch malariologists in a more vivid perspective. Following the course of history, first the already existing links with the RF are explained along with some peculiarities of tertian malaria in the Dutch temperate climate. The emergence of a new epidemic during the war years and the implication of new tools and principles for control as advocated by the RF are described. The subsequent shriveling of the vector population and the disappearance of malaria are presented, along with some details about the reluctance of WHO to declare the Netherlands malaria-free. Finally, recent unrest about possible return of malaria is put into perspective.     

Internationalism and nationalism: the Rockefeller Foundation, public health, and malaria in Italy, 1923-1951

The Rockefeller Foundation's support of malaria control and public health in Italy over three decades, the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s, was one of the foundation's most successful collaborations in its history. Nearly one-sixth of the funds the Rockefeller Foundation allocated for malaria programs was spent in Italy in those years. Outstanding research, a new and important institution, and decided improvements in public health were historically-significant results. The three most important episodes of this American-Italian relationship were the operations of the Stazione Sperimentale per la Lotta Antimalarica, the founding of the Istituto Superiore di Sanità, and the campaign to eradicate mosquitoes in Sardinia. In each of these episodes there was a tension between the international aspects and national aspects of the partnership that to some degree limited its success.     

The Rockefeller Foundation and the prevention of malaria in Corsica, 1923-1951: support given to the French parasitologist Emile Brumpt

The role of the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation in campaigns for malaria control in many countries has clearly been documented extensively. In contrast, the involvement of the Rockefeller Foundation in the control of malaria in France has not been reported yet. The present paper describes the way in which the Rockefeller Foundation got involved, along with the parasitologist Emile Brumpt, in the anti-malaria campaigns in Corsica, France, between 1924 and 1951. We analyze the scientific and technological strategies used for that purpose and the manner in which the Rockefeller Foundation policy had influenced Brumpt's actions. The unusually long support of the Rockefeller Foundation to Emile Brumpt (1924-1948) and to research and teaching Parasitology in the Faculté de Médecine de Paris is also discussed.     

Quinine (Cinchona) and the incurable malaria: India c. 1900-1930s

The early decades of this century witnessed significant developments in the approaches to control of malaria in British India. These included both large-scale preventive measures and curative treatment methods (often referred to as "cinchona" or "quinine" policy). This paper identifies a number of factors that constrained the colonial government's capacity to control malaria through effective cinchona policy. The ideal of achieving "self-sufficiency" and having an efficient form of treatment and distribution within the reach of the masses in India (as originally intended in late 1850s) was far from being achieved. Both government's policy and medical profession seemed to have contributed equally to this failure.     

The Rockefeller Foundation and the rise of molecular biology

The Rockefeller Foundation began to support a systematic transfer of physico-chemical technology to experimental biology in the early 1930s. A close look at three key projects in the United Kingdom shows the impact and limits of private philanthropy on scientific innovation.     

Steroid analysis and doping control 1960-1980: Scientific developments and personal anecdotes

Definitive proof of anabolic steroid abuse in sports was not possible prior to the introduction of combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS).This is a report of the early history (1960-1980) of GC/MS and radioimmunoassay, and how these techniques were utilized in the first years of steroid doping control in athletics. There were several key individuals and research groups involved in the early technical developments, and their essential contributions have been acknowledged. Our laboratory was the first IAAF (International Association of Athletic Federations) sanctioned site to do steroid GC/MS steroid analysis resulting in athletes being disqualified from competition. We had notable successes, including the only East German female competitor ever suspended during the tenure of the DDR (Deutsche Demokratische Republik). This paper not only covers scientific advances and milestones in the incorporation of steroid testing into international athletics, but also includes personal anecdotes of these early years before doping control became justifiably regimented. By the early 1980s, in anticipation of the Los Angeles Olympic games, dedicated year-round sports testing facilities had been established and part-time amateurs could step aside.