A manipulative test of competing theories for metabolic scaling

The reasons why metabolic rate (B) scales allometrically with body mass (M) remain hotly debated. The field is dominated by correlational analyses of the relationship between B and M; these struggle to disentangle competing explanations because both B and M are confounded with ontogeny, life history, and ecology. Here, we overcome these problems by using an experimental approach to test among competing metabolic theories. We examined the scaling of B in size-manipulated and intact colonies of a bryozoan and show that B scales with M(0.5). To explain this, we apply a general model based on the dynamic energy budget theory for metabolic organization that predicts B on the basis of energy allocation to assimilation, maintenance, growth, and maturation. Uniquely, this model predicts the absolute value of B, emphasizes that there is no single scaling exponent of B, and demonstrates that a single model can explain the variation in B seen in nature.     

INHIBITION OF RESPIRATION IN SEA URCHIN SPERMATOZOA FOLLOWING INTERACTION WITH FIXED UNFERTILIZED EGGS

The respiration of spermatozoa of the sea urchin, Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus , was found to be sensitive to rotenone, antimycin A, and cyanide. This suggests that sperm respiration results from electron transport which spans the whole mitochondrial respiratory chain. The sperm respiration was inhibited by oligomycin and this inhibition was released by 2, 4-dinitrophenol (DNP). DNP did not stimulate the respiration of spermatozoa in a diluted suspension (2 × 10⁸/ml), where they were swimming vigorously. The ADP level of spermatozoa in the diluted suspension was markedly higher than that in dry sperm. The spermatozoa, which had reacted with unfertilized eggs fixed with glutaraldehyde, were immotile with a quite low respiratory rate. The respiratory rate of the immotile spermatozoa was enhanced by DNP. In the immotile spermatozoa, ADP level was markedly low and the ATP level was as high as that in dry sperm. From these findings, it is concluded that in the swimming spermatozoa respiration coupled with oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the maximum rate. State 3 respiration probably occurs in the swimming spermatozoa. The low respiratory rate of the immotile spermatozoa is assumed to be due to a shortage of ADP and is practically regarded as state 4 respiration.     

Predicting trophic relations in ecological networks: A test of the Allometric Diet Breadth Model

Few food web theory hypotheses/predictions can be readily tested using likelihoods of reproducing the data. Simple probabilistic models for food web structure, however, are an exception as their likelihoods were recently derived. Here I test the performance of a more complex model for food web structure that is grounded in the allometric scaling of interactions with body size and the theory of optimal foraging (Allometric Diet Breadth Model—ADBM). This deterministic model has been evaluated by measuring the fraction of trophic relations it correctly predicts. I contrasted this value with that produced by simpler models based on body sizes and found that the quantitative information on allometric scaling and optimal foraging does not significantly increase model fit. Also, I present a method to compute the p-value for the fraction of trophic interactions correctly predicted by the ADBM, or any other model, with respect to three probabilistic models. I find that the ADBM predicts significantly more links than random graphs, but other models can outperform it. Although optimal foraging and allometric scaling may improve our understanding of food webs, the ADBM needs to be modified or replaced to find support in the data.     

Swimming performance in early development and the "other" consequences of egg size for ciliated planktonic larvae

The evolutionary significance of egg size in marine invertebrates is commonly perceived in energetic terms. Embryonic size should also have direct effects upon the forces that govern swimming, a behavior common to early larval development in the plankton. If swimming is ecologically important, early larvae may need to perform to a certain "standard", or threshold of speed and/or stability. The existence of performance standards in early development could therefore act to constrain the evolution of egg size and the evolution of development. Here we present the key parameters that characterize the upward swimming speed of ciliated spheroidal larvae moving at very low Reynolds numbers. The dependence of maximum supported mass upon larval size, and the independence of neutral-weight swimming speed from size, lead to hypotheses about scaling of swimming speed with size. Experimental studies with thirteen broadcast-spawning planktotrophs demonstrate that free-living embryonic swimmers in all of these species conform to a strong negative scaling of density with size that offsets increases in mass with increasing size. This trend suggests that swimming ability is broadly under selection in early development. In experimental studies and in a hydrodynamic model of larval swimming, the performance of trochophore larvae provides support for our hypothesized scaling relationships, and also for the concept of a standard in swimming speed. Echinoid blastulae, however, show relationships between speed and size that are not predicted by our scaling arguments. Results for echinoids suggest that differences in ciliary tip speed, or possibly in spatial density of cilia over the blastula's surface, result in significant differences in species' performance. Strong phyletic differences in the initial patterning and growth of structures used for swimming thus appear to cause significant differences in the relationship of swimming ability with embryo size.     

鲢幼鱼在不同水流速度下的暴发-滑行行为策略

在水温（18±1）℃的条件下,以全长（11.70±0.57）cm的鲢（Hypophthalmichthys molitrix）幼鱼为研究对象,测定其不同流速（16.5、22.0、27.5、33.0、38.5、44.0、49.5和55.0 cm/s）下的持续游泳时间、调头百分比和暴发-滑行运动数据。结果表明,鲢的平均持续游泳时间先随流速的增加而减小,后随流速的增加而增加。当流速33.0 cm/s时,平均持续时间最短为118.6min,其中各组试验鱼的最大可持续游泳时间均可达到200min。调头百分比随流速的增加迅速减小,当流速≥44.0 cm/s时,不再出现调头行为。暴发-滑行游泳的平均暴发时间随流速的增加呈上升趋势（y=0.03x+2.64,R2=0.92,P<0.05）。平均对地暴发距离均在30-45 cm,没有显著性差异（P>0.05）,平均绝对暴发距离存在极显著性差异,且随流速的增加而增加（y=4.98x-5.63,R2=0.98,P<0.001）。平均对地暴发速度没有显著性差异（平均对地平均速度和最大速度分别在9-12 cm/s、12-16 cm/s,P>0.05）。平均绝对暴发速度与水流速度之间存在线性正相关关系（平均绝对平均暴发速度:y=0.98x+10.74,R2=1.00,P<0.001;平均绝对最大暴发速度:y=1.02x+13.75,R2=0.99,P<0.001）。研究表明鲢在不同的流速下采取的暴发-滑行行为策略不同。     

Assessing the impact of thermal acclimation on physiological condition in the zebrafish model

The zebrafish has become a valuable vertebrate model organism in a wide range of scientific disciplines, but current information concerning the physiological temperature response of adult zebrafish is rather scarce. In this study, zebrafish were experimentally acclimated for 28 days to 18, 26 or 34 °C and a suite of non-invasive and invasive methods was applied to determine the thermal dependence of zebrafish physiological condition. With decreasing temperature, the metabolic rate of zebrafish decreased, as shown by the decreasing oxygen uptake and ammonia excretion rates, limiting the critical swimming speed, probably due to a decreased muscle fibre power output. In response to exercise, fuel stores were mobilized to the liver as shown by the increased hepatosomatic index, liver total absolute energetic value and liver carbohydrate concentration but due to the low metabolic rate they could not be adequately addressed to power swimming activity at 18 °C. Conversely, the increased metabolic performance at high temperature came with an increased metabolic cost resulting in decreased energy status reflected particularly well by the non-invasive condition factor and invasive measures of carcass protein concentration, carcass total absolute energetic value and liver carbohydrate concentration. We showed that the combined measurement of the relative condition factor and critical swimming speed is a powerful non-invasive tool for long-term follow-up studies. Invasive methods were redundant for measuring general energy status but they provided detailed information concerning metabolic reorganization. With this study we proved that the usefulness of the zebrafish as a model organism can easily be expanded to include physiological studies and we provided a reference dataset for the selection of measures of physiological responses for future studies using the zebrafish.     

Flow Loading Induces Oscillatory Trajectories in a Bloodstream Parasite

The dynamics of isolated microswimmers are studied in bounded flow using the African trypanosome, a unicellular parasite, as the model organism. With the help of a microfluidics platform, cells are subjected to flow and found to follow an oscillatory path that is well fit by a sine wave. The frequency and amplitudes of the oscillatory trajectories are dependent on the flow velocity and cell orientation. When traveling in such a manner, trypanosomes orient upstream while downstream-facing cells tumble within the same streamline. A comparison with immotile trypanosomes demonstrates that self-propulsion is essential to the trajectories of trypanosomes even at flow velocities up to ～40 times higher than their own swimming speed. These studies reveal important swimming dynamics that may be generally pertinent to the transport of microswimmers in flow and may be relevant to microbial pathogenesis.     

Regulation of flagellar bending by cAMP and Ca2+ in hamster sperm

Hamster sperm were immotile in the medium at free Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]) below 1 x 10(-4) M. The flagellum was acutely bent in the opposite direction to the curve of the hook-shaped heads. This phenomenon seemed to be caused by the decrease in the intracellular cAMP concentration, since the cAMP concentration was low at [Ca2+] below 1 x 10(-4) M and increased abruptly at 1 x 10(-3) M, at which sperm were swimming actively. In addition, sperm became motile due to treatment with 8-bromo-cAMP, a membrane permeable analogue of cAMP, in a medium without Ca2+. These results suggested that extracellular Ca2+ is involved in the regulation of flagellar movement via increasing intracellular cAMP concentration. By the treatment with W-13, a calmodulin inhibitor, sperm also became motile, although cAMP concentration remained at a low level. These results suggested that cAMP is not always required for the flagellar movement when the function of calmodulin is depressed.     

Modelling tendon excursions and moment arms of the finger flexors: anatomic fidelity versus function

A detailed musculoskeletal model of the human hand is needed to investigate the pathomechanics of tendon disorders and carpal tunnel syndrome. The purpose of this study was to develop a biomechanical model with realistic flexor tendon excursions and moment arms. An existing upper extremity model served as a starting point, which included programmed movement of the index finger. Movement capabilities were added for the other fingers. Metacarpophalangeal articulations were modelled as universal joints to simulate flexion/extension and abduction/adduction while interphalangeal articulations used hinges to represent flexion. Flexor tendon paths were modelled using two approaches. The first method constrained tendons with control points, representing annular pulleys. The second technique used wrap objects at the joints as tendon constraints. Both control point and joint wrap models were iteratively adjusted to coincide with tendon excursions and moment arms from a anthropometric regression model using inputs for a 50th percentile male. Tendon excursions from the joint wrap method best matched the regression model even though anatomic features of the tendon paths were not preserved (absolute differences: mean<0.33 mm, peak<0.74 mm). The joint wrap model also produced similar moment arms to the regression (absolute differences: mean<0.63 mm, peak<1.58 mm). When a scaling algorithm was used to test anthropometrics, the scaled joint wrap models better matched the regression than the scaled control point models. Detailed patient-specific anatomical data will improve model outcomes for clinical use; however, population studies may benefit from simplified geometry, especially with anthropometric scaling.     

Nucleus-Independent Chemical Shifts from Semiempirical Calculations

A recently developed special MNDO parameterization for NMR chemical shifts is used to compute the nucleus-independent chemical shifts (NICS) for a wide range of organic molecules, including [n]annulenes, polycyclic hydrocarbons, heterocycles, cage molecules, fullerenes, and pericyclic transition states. The results are compared with published NICS data from ab initio and density functional calculations. In general, there is reasonable agreement. The semiempirical NICS values tend to be smaller in absolute value than their ab initio counterparts, but they often show similar trends. The aromatic or antiaromatic character of a given system can normally be assigned correctly on the basis of the MNDO NICS values.     

Optimal shape and motion of undulatory swimming organisms

Undulatory swimming animals exhibit diverse ranges of body shapes and motion patterns and are often considered as having superior locomotory performance. The extent to which morphological traits of swimming animals have evolved owing to primarily locomotion considerations is, however, not clear. To shed some light on that question, we present here the optimal shape and motion of undulatory swimming organisms obtained by optimizing locomotive performance measures within the framework of a combined hydrodynamical, structural and novel muscular model. We develop a muscular model for periodic muscle contraction which provides relevant kinematic and energetic quantities required to describe swimming. Using an evolutionary algorithm, we performed a multi-objective optimization for achieving maximum sustained swimming speed U and minimum cost of transport (COT)--two conflicting locomotive performance measures that have been conjectured as likely to increase fitness for survival. Starting from an initial population of random characteristics, our results show that, for a range of size scales, fish-like body shapes and motion indeed emerge when U and COT are optimized. Inherent boundary-layer-dependent allometric scaling between body mass and kinematic and energetic quantities of the optimal populations is observed. The trade-off between U and COT affects the geometry, kinematics and energetics of swimming organisms. Our results are corroborated by empirical data from swimming animals over nine orders of magnitude in size, supporting the notion that optimizing U and COT could be the driving force of evolution in many species.     

Inhomogeneous steady state distributions of species in predator--prey systems. A specific example

We present and study a specific example of emergence of an inhomogeneous steady state distribution in a non- Lotka—Volterra predator-prey model. With the aid of a linear and a non-linear bifurcation analysis, the dependence of this distribution on species mobilities as well as other important model parameters is discussed. It is seen that the behaviour of the resulting colonies of species seems to correctly mimic some of the features of real predator-prey systems.     

Myosin heavy chain and parvalbumin expression in swimming and feeding muscles of centrarchid fishes: the molecular basis of the scaling of contractile properties

In centrarchid fishes, such as bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus, Rafinesque) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides, Lacepède), the contractile properties of feeding and swimming muscles show different scaling patterns. While the maximum shortening velocity (V(max)) and rate of relaxation from tetanus of swimming or myotomal muscle slow with growth, the feeding muscle shows distinctive scaling patterns. Cranial epaxial muscle, which is used to elevate the head during feeding strikes, retains fast contractile properties across a range of fish sizes in both species. In bass, the sternohyoideous muscle, which depresses the floor of the mouth during feeding strikes, shows faster contractile properties with growth. The objective of this study was to determine the molecular basis of these different scaling patterns. We examined the expression of two muscle proteins, myosin heavy chain (MyHC) and parvalbumin (PV), that affect contractile properties. We hypothesized that the relative contribution of slow and fast MyHC isoforms will modulate V(max) in these fishes, while the presence of PV in muscle will enhance rates of muscle relaxation. Myotomal muscle displays an increase in sMyHC expression with growth, in agreement with its physiological properties. Feeding muscles such as epaxial and sternohyoideus show no change or a decrease in sMyHC expression with growth, again as predicted from contractile properties. PV expression in myotomal muscle decreases with growth in both species, as has been seen in other fishes. The feeding muscles again show no change or an increase in PV expression with growth, contributing to faster contractile properties in these fishes. Both MyHC and PV appear to play important roles in modulating muscle contractile properties of swimming and feeding muscles in centrarchid fishes.     

中华绒螯蟹幼蟹温度选择与偏好研究

研究通过利用自动化的电子穿梭系统研究长江野生中华绒螯蟹幼蟹的行为参数对温度变化的响应, 进行了Ⅰ组8℃和14℃实验组、Ⅱ组14℃和21℃实验组、Ⅲ组21℃和28℃实验组、Ⅳ组28℃和35℃实验组共4个实验组。实验表明中华绒螯蟹幼蟹的最佳偏好温度在28℃。幼蟹会加速逃离不适温度区域, 且偏离温度越高游泳速率越高, 温度和游泳速率拟合方程: y=0.0027x2–0.1045x+1.5875, R2=0.8615, 昼夜(P>0.05)和雌雄性别(P>0.05)差异对温度的偏好选择未见明显影响。研究为中华绒螯蟹养殖、利用及野外环境下种群保护与调控管理提供科学依据。     

Motility of rat spermatozoa at the site of fertilization

This study was undertaken to examine the factors that may affect the numbers and motility patterns of spermatozoa at the site of fertilization. The contents of the oviductal ampullae of previously mated cycling or superovulated immature rats were examined microscopically. We determined whether spermatozoa were free or associated with cells and whether they exhibited hyperactivated motility, forward progressive motility, or were immotile. These data were correlated with the percentage of fertilized eggs. In addition, the beat pattern of hyperactivated spermatozoa was characterized by using high-speed video microscopy. At the time when half of the eggs were fertilized, ampullae of cycling rats contained an average of less than one motile spermatozoon per ampulla. Most of these motile spermatozoa were hyperactivated. About half of these were free in the ampulla and about half were in the cumulus or zona pellucida. Hyperactivated spermatozoa displayed a nonprogressive whiplash wave form with a high amplitude recovery stroke similar to that described in hamster and guinea pig spermatozoa capacitated in vitro. In addition to motile spermatozoa, we counted about three immotile spermatozoa for each motile spermatozoon. In superovulated, immature female rats, we found about ten times as many spermatozoa in each category as in cycling rats. From our observations, it is clear that very few spermatozoa reach the ampulla of the oviduct. Furthermore our observations suggest that in cycling rats progressively swimming spermatozoa may become hyperactivated shortly after entering the ampulla of the oviduct. They probably enter the cumulus mass within a short time or become immotile.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Application of 1D blood flow models of the human arterial network to differential pressure predictions

A new application of 1D models of the human arterial network is proposed. We take advantage of the sensitivity of the models predictions for the pressure profiles within the main aorta to key model parameter values. We propose to use the patterns in the predicted differences from a base case as a way to infer to the most probable changes in the parameter values. We demonstrate this application using an impedance model that we have recently developed (Johnson, 2010). The input model parameters are all physiologically related, such as the geometric dimensions of large arteries, various blood properties, vessel elasticity, etc. and can therefore be patient specific. As a base case, nominal values from the literature are used. The necessary information to characterize the smaller arteries, arterioles, and capillaries is taken from a physical scaling model (West, 1999). Model predictions for the effective impedance of the human arterial system closely agree with experimental data available in the literature. The predictions for the pressure wave development along the main arteries are also found in qualitative agreement with previous published results. The model has been further validated against our own measured pressure data in the carotid and radial arteries, obtained from healthy individuals. Upon changes in the value of key model parameters, we show that the differences seen in the pressure profiles correspond to qualitatively different patterns for different parameters. This suggests the possibility of using the model in interpreting multiple pressure data of healthy/diseased individuals.     

Detection and risk assessment of adenoviruses in swimming pool water

AIMS: The role of swimming pool water as a source of human adenovirus (HAd) infection has previously been demonstrated. In this study, the risk of infection of HAds detected in a survey of swimming pool water from two indoor and one outdoor swimming pools over a period of 1 year was assessed. METHODS AND RESULTS: The HAds were concentrated from 1 l grab samples of swimming pool water using a silicon dioxide-based method. The extracted HAd DNA was amplified by means of a nested PCR method. Adenoviruses were detected in four of 26 samples (15.4%) from the indoor swimming pool A, eight of 38 samples (21.1%) from the indoor swimming pool B and three of 28 samples (10.7%) from the outdoor swimming pool C. Application of these results in an exponential risk assessment model indicated a daily risk of infection of 2.61 x 10(-3) for swimming pool A, 3.69 x 10(-3) for swimming pool B and 1.92 x 10(-3) for swimming pool C assuming a daily consumption of 30 ml of swimming pool water. CONCLUSIONS: No acceptable (tolerable) risk of infection has yet been recommended for swimming pool water. However, the quality of swimming pool water is generally expected to be similar to that of drinking water. One infection per 10 000 consumers per year has been recommended for drinking water. The risk of HAd infections calculated for the swimming pool water under investigation exceeded this acceptable risk. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: The finding that swimming pool water which conforms to generally accepted specifications for treatment, disinfection and indicator organisms constituted a risk of HAd infection, has implications for the swimming pool industry. The formulation of acceptable (tolerable) risks of infection for swimming pool water may be essential. Specifications will, therefore, have to be formulated to ensure that swimming pool water conforms to the acceptable risk of infection.     

The influence of cell size on marine bacterial motility and energetics

The influence of Brownian motion on marine bacteria was examined. Due to their small size, marine bacteria rotate up to 1,400 degrees in one second. This rapid rotation makes directional swimming difficult or impossible, as a bacterium may point in a particular direction for only a few tens of milliseconds on average. Some directional movement, however, was found to be possible if swimming speed is sufficiently great, over approximately 100 μm sec⁻¹. This led to the testable hypothesis that marine bacteria with radiii less than about 0.75 μm should exceed this speed. The result of the increased speed is that marine bacteria may spend in excess of 10% of their total energy budget on movement. This expenditure is 100 times greater than values for enteric bacteria, and indicates that marine bacteria are likely to be immotile below critical size-specific nutrient concentrations.     

A biased random walk model for the trajectories of swimming micro-organisms

The motion of swimming micro-organisms that have a preferred direction of travel, such as single-celled algae moving upwards (gravitaxis) or towards a light source (phototaxis), is modelled as the continuous limit of a correlated and biased random walk as the time step tends to zero. This model leads to a Fokker-Planck equation for the probability distribution function of the orientation of the cells, from which macroscopic parameters such as the mean cell swimming direction and the diffusion coefficient due to cell swimming can be calculated. The model is tested on experimental data for gravitaxis and phototaxis and used to derive values for the macroscopic parameters for future use in theories of bioconvection, for example.