Plastic body,permanent body: Czech representations of corporeality in the early twentieth century

In the early twentieth century, the body was seen as both an ontogenetic and a phylogenetic entity. In the former case, its individual development, it was manifestly changeable, developing from embryo to maturity and thence to a state of decay. But in the latter case, concerning its development as a species, the question was an open one. Was its phylogenetic nature a stationary snapshot of the slow process of evolution, or was this too mutable? Historians have emphasised that the question of acquired inheritance remained open into the twentieth century; this paper explores how various constructions of the individual as a phylogenetic episode—a stage in the race’s evolution—related to representations of the body in the same period.A discussion of the work of the brothers Josef and Karel Čapek offers a contextualised answer to the question of bodily representation. Karel Čapek (1890–1938) explored the nature of the ‘average man’ through two different organisms, the robot and the amphibian, epitomes respectively of corporeal permanence and plasticity. Josef Čapek (1887–1945), along with other members of the Group of Plastic Artists, explored visual representations of the body that challenged cubist Bergsonian norms. In so doing, he affirmed what his brother also held: that despite the constrictions imposed by the oppressive political conditions in which the Czechs found themselves, the individual body was a fragile but fluid entity, capable of effecting change upon the future evolution of humankind.     

Water temperature behaviour in the River Danube during the twentieth century

Monthly mean water temperatures in the River Danube at Linz, Austria during the period 1901–1990 have been investigated in relation to equivalent information on air temperature and river discharge. Statistical analysis revealed a significant increase in monthly mean water temperatures of 0.8 °C and showed strongest rises in mean values for autumn and early winter months. No statistically significant trends were evident for air temperature or river discharge, and rising water temperatures are likely to reflect increasing human modification of the river system. A strong overall correlation between monthly mean water and air temperatures at Linz was made up of a series of more scattered and less steep water/air temperature relationships for individual months, while the influence of snowmelt runoff depressed average water temperatures in the spring and early summer period by 1.5 °C. Multiple regression relationships developed for individual months from data on air temperature, river discharge and time trend during the study period were able to predict monthly mean water temperatures in 1991 and 1992 with a root mean square error of 0.5 °C. These regression equations, when combined with scenarios of future changes in air temperature and river flow as a consequence of global warming, suggest that only modest rises in monthly mean water temperature will be experienced in the River Danube by the end of the present century, but that increases of > 1 °C for all months, and > 2 °C for the autumn period of low flows, can be anticipated by the year 2030.     

Carbon balances in US croplands during the last two decades of the twentieth century

Carbon (C) added to soil as organic matter in crop residues and carbon emitted to the atmosphere as CO₂ in soil respiration are key determinants of the C balance in cropland ecosystems. We used complete and comprehensive county-level yields and area data to estimate and analyze the spatial and temporal variability of regional and national scale residue C inputs, net primary productivity (NPP), and C stocks in US croplands from 1982 to 1997. Annual residue C inputs were highest in the North Central and Central and Northern Plains regions that comprise ~70% of US cropland. Average residue C inputs ranged from 1.8 (Delta States) to 3.0 (North Central region) Mg?C?ha^?1?year^?1, and average NPP ranged from 3.1 (Delta States) to 5.4 (Far West region) Mg?C?ha^?1?year^?1. Residue C inputs tended to be inversely proportional to the mean growing season temperature. A quadratic relationship incorporating the growing season mean temperature and total precipitation closely predicted the variation in residue C inputs in the North Central region and Central and Northern Plains. We analyzed the soil C balance using the crop residue database and the Introductory Carbon Balance regional Model (ICBMr). Soil C stocks (0–20?cm) on permanent cropland ranged between 3.07 and 3.1?Pg during the study period, with an average increase of ~4?Tg?C?year^?1, during the 1990s. Interannual variability in soil C stocks ranged from 0 to 20?Tg?C (across a mean C stock of 3.08?±?0.01?Pg) during the study period; interannual variability in residue C inputs varied between 1 and 43?Tg C (across a mean input of 220?±?19?Tg). Such interannual variation has implications for national estimates of CO₂ emissions from cropland soils needed for implementation of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation strategies involving agriculture.     

No recent temporal changes in body size of three Danish rodents

We used museum collections to study temporal trends of possible changes in skull size, body mass and body length in three species of rodents in Denmark. Skulls of adult Microtus agrestis, Apodemus flavicollis and Apodemus sylvaticus, collected between 1895 and 2004, 1847 and 2002, and 1895 and 2002, respectively, were measured and data on body mass and length were taken from the museum registers. Principal component (PC) analysis was used to combine data of the four skull measurements taken. We tested the relationship of sex, latitude, longitude, month and year of collection to PC1 by a General Linear Model (GLM). PC1, body length and body mass of M. agrestis significantly increased from west to east. In addition, PC1, body mass and body length of M. agrestis declined from summer (August) through autumn and winter to spring (March), probably due to the decline in food availability towards winter. None of the other factors examined (sex, latitude and year) were significantly related to body size. PC1 of A. flavicollis and A. sylvaticus was not significantly related to any of the environmental factors examined.     

Reconstruction of pollutant lead invasion into the tropical North Atlantic during the twentieth century

In this study we reconstruct pollutant lead transport and input into the Caribbean basin in relation to the meteorological changes and past industrial activities. These reconstructions are based on the geochemical data obtained from massive corals collected in 1998 in Mona Island. Lead concentration profile mimics the general atmospheric lead trend obtained from the previous investigations on ice cores, carbonate skeletons and in sediments from the North Atlantic. This similarity corroborates the significance of anthropogenic impact on all reservoirs of the North Atlantic as associated with the proliferation of the automobile and use of leaded gasoline during the twentieth century. Our high-resolution record reveals a 2–4 years shift between the maximum pollutant lead input to Mona Island and leaded gasoline consumption peaks in North America, suggesting a possible longer secondary oceanic transport of US lead within the Subtropical North Atlantic Gyre system. A striking relationship is found between lead isotopic imprints and the winter North Atlantic oscillation (NAO) index for two specific periods (1914–1929 and 1965–1997). These periods are characterized by distinct isotopic signatures from the main pollutant lead emitter to the North Atlantic troposphere, North America and Western Europe. This involves a noteworthy influence of the NAO on pollutant input and distribution in the North Atlantic that strengthens the usefulness of lead isotopes as tracers of paleo-atmospheric circulation and changes in marine circulation pathways.     

Heterochrony in plant evolutionary studies through the twentieth century

The evolution of plant morphology is the result of changes in developmental processes. Heterochrony, the evolutionary change in developmental rate or timing, is a major cause of ontogenetic modification during evolution. It is responsible for both interspecific and intraspecific morphological differences. Other causes include heterotopy, the change of structural position, and homeosis, the replacement of a structure by another. This paper discusses and reviews the role of heterochrony in plant evolution at the organismal, organ, tissue, cellular, and molecular levels, as well as the relationships among heterochrony, heterotopy, and homeosis. An attempt has been made to include all published studies through late 1999. It is likely that most heterochronic change involves more than one of the six classic pure heterochronic processes. Of these processes, we found neoteny (decreased developmental rate in descendant), progenesis (earlier offset), and acceleration (increased rate) to be more commonly reported than hypermorphosis (delayed offset) or predisplacement (earlier onset). We found no reports of postdisplacement (delayed onset). Therefore, although rate changes are common (both neoteny and acceleration), shifts in timing most commonly involve earlier termination in the descendant (progenesis). These relative frequencies may change as more kinds of structures are analyzed. Phenotypic effects of evolutionary changes in onset or offset timing can be exaggerated, suppressed, or reversed by changes in rate. Because not all developmental changes responsible for evolution result from heterochrony, however, we propose that plant evolution be studied from a viewpoint that integrates these different developmental mechanisms.     

Why the crested ibis declined in the middle twentieth century

The crested ibis (Nipponia nippon) had declined severely from a common species to only two pairs in last century. To analyze the declining process, we established a GIS database with historical occurrences of the crested ibis based on published literatures, and layers of environmental factors such as elevation, wetland, and human activities. We compared the environmental factors at the occurrence sites in different periods to quantify the changes of habitat use across time. To address the spatial deviation of the occurrences and check the effect of measuring scale on habitat use, we calculated the environmental factors in a serial measuring scales from 1 to 161 × 161 km². Our results indicated that the crested ibis traditionally lives in habitat with higher wetland density and higher human impact, then it gradually moved to areas with higher elevation and lower human impact in last century. In 1980–2000 the crested ibis stayed at a very high elevation, lower wetland density and lower human impact as possible consequences of human activities such as using fertilizer and pesticide, drying the over wintering rice paddies, and direct hunting. Our quantitative analysis of the habitat use matched well the previous published statements (which have no numerical evidences) on the declination of the crested ibis. We suggest to reestablish the habitat with traditional farming practice that the bird has adapted as a major solution for applications such as conservation planning and reintroduction.     

Changes in the skull morphology of the Arctic wolf, Canis lupus arctos, during the twentieth century

Measurements of a large series of skulls of the Arctic wolf, Canis lupus arctos . have shown that since 1930 there has been an overall reduction in the size of the skulls, together with widening of the cranium, shortening of the facial region, and reduction in size of the teeth. This suggests that hybridization and subsequent introgression occurred with huskies ( Canis familiaris ) during the 1930s, which is consistent with historical accounts. Since 1950 there has been a reversion in skull morphology to a more 'wolf-like' form, suggesting that hybridization is no longer occurring.
The skull of a wolf/dog hybrid is intermediate in size between the skulls of wolves and huskies but its shape is allometrically dissimilar. Skulls of wolves from the period 1930–50 are moi-e similar to the skull of this hybrid than in the other time periods.
The skull of a male canid from a carcass collected on Ellesmere Island and presented to the Natural History Museum. London, in 1986 was at first thought to be from a wolf/dog hybrid but analyses of the measurements show that it is more likely to be from an Arctic wolf with severe abnormalities to the jaws.     

Some aspects of secular changes in Hungary over the twentieth century

Growth and maturation are considered the most reliable indicators of health status. Their progression rates in turn are strongly influenced by nutrition and socio-economic status, a well-documented relationship. The pattern of the so-called positive secular changes, i.e. the increase in size and earlier maturation, fits the populations' historical model of economic development very well. The historical, political and economic changes occurring in this century in Hungary have had a remarkably strong impact. Until World War I Hungary was an agrarian part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, its ethnic composition was most variegated. Both World Wars caused fundamental changes, namely in respect of post-war Hungary they were associated with marked territorial losses and considerable population mobility. In interpreting the developmental differences in the data collected before and after these wars one should take account of the important facts that, in addition to the changes in socio-economic conditions, affected the gene pool of the populations in Hungary. Over the past 100 years profound changes have occurred in the mean body size, growth rate and timing of maturation of the country's population. This paper is a brief analytic summary of the tendencies observed in adult stature, maturation and some socio-economic conditions. It also compares the cohorts of sub-populations as reflected by the reviewed reports. In summarizing the change in adult stature estimated by the data on recruits, soldiers and students of higher education, it could be stated that adult mean stature had become markedly taller in Hungary since the end of the fifties. However, any estimation of the absolute increment and the exact rate is severely biased by the variable character of the samples' representativeness. Similar problems arose in dealing with sexual maturation, because the retrospective and status-quo methods of assessment were found incomparable. Nevertheless, menarche was observed to have shifted to an appreciably younger age lately, a trend that by the end of the 20th century seemed to have reached a more or less stable level.     

Changes in the fish fauna of the Ria de Aveiro estuarine lagoon (Portugal) during the twentieth century

The fish biodiversity of the Ria de Aveiro has been analysed during the 20th century, as an indicator of the biological integrity of the ecosystem. Ninety-two distinct species and 38 families of Agnatha, Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes occurred during the period. The family and species richness showed two levels of magnitude, from the 1910s, with high values (26–28 families and 51–52 species), and during the last two decades with more variable values (20–27 families and 38–55 species). A total of 13 species (four non-sporadic species) have disappeared recently. The lagoon system has been affected by large-scale anthropogenic influences mainly the substantial development of industries and the increasing population in the watershed, in addition to overfishing, climatic changes and dredging. In general, as shown by an analysis of the ecotrophic guilds present, the area maintained a similar structure during the whole period. No significant differences in time were recorded for any of the designated guilds. The twenty-two frequent species, which occurred in six or seven surveys, were mainly estuarine resident species or marine adventitious species, living in the substratum (benthic fish), on soft substratum and vegetated bottoms. They were feeding either on invertebrates alone or on invertebrates and fish, and producing pelagic or benthic eggs. The 19 sporadically-recorded species, recorded only once, were mostly marine adventitious, demersal fishes, living above rough bottom and vegetation, feeding strictly on invertebrates, and producing eggs benthically or deposited into vegetation. It is concluded that the Ria de Aveiro estuarine coastal lagoon has supported similar fish communities during the past century and that these comprise representatives of various ecological types.     

African tropical rainforest net carbon dioxide fluxes in the twentieth century

The African humid tropical biome constitutes the second largest rainforest region, significantly impacts global carbon cycling and climate, and has undergone major changes in functioning owing to climate and land-use change over the past century. We assess changes and trends in CO₂ fluxes from 1901 to 2010 using nine land surface models forced with common driving data, and depict the inter-model variability as the uncertainty in fluxes. The biome is estimated to be a natural (no disturbance) net carbon sink (−0.02 kg C m⁻² yr⁻¹ or −0.04 Pg C yr⁻¹, p < 0.05) with increasing strength fourfold in the second half of the century. The models were in close agreement on net CO₂ flux at the beginning of the century (σ₁₉₀₁ = 0.02 kg C m⁻² yr⁻¹), but diverged exponentially throughout the century (σ₂₀₁₀ = 0.03 kg C m⁻² yr⁻¹). The increasing uncertainty is due to differences in sensitivity to increasing atmospheric CO₂, but not increasing water stress, despite a decrease in precipitation and increase in air temperature. However, the largest uncertainties were associated with the most extreme drought events of the century. These results highlight the need to constrain modelled CO₂ fluxes with increasing atmospheric CO₂ concentrations and extreme climatic events, as the uncertainties will only amplify in the next century.     

Nitrogen footprint in a long-term observation of forest growth over the twentieth century

Environmental drivers of forest productivity increases have been much debated. Evidence for the suggested role of increasing nitrogen supply is lacking over long-term time scales. Tracking the footprint of environmental factors by using long-term growth records may thus prove decisive. We analysed growth chronologies of common beech in two areas of contrasting nutritional status in France. Dominant height growth was used as a proxy for productivity. Growth was compared between old and young paired stands sampled at the same sites to factor out effects of ageing and site. Growth chronologies were estimated with a statistical modelling procedure. The environmental causality of growth changes was addressed by combining (1) a comparison of growth changes between regions, (2) a regional comparison of growth chronologies with chronologies of environmental factors and (3) growth–environment relationships established from climate/soil data. Historical growth increases followed very similar courses in the two areas. Remarkably, the magnitude of change was 50% lower in the area that had reduced nutritional status and nitrogen deposition. Historical variations in environmental factors and growth were congruent with the roles of nitrogen availability and deposition, and of atmospheric CO₂ increase. Low-frequency variations in climate and growth were not coincident. However, our analysis demonstrated the role of climatic anomalies in short-term growth variations. Growth–environment relationships further indicated a nitrogen constraint. These observations corroborate the enhancing role of increased nitrogen availability on forest biomass accumulation previously reported in ecosystem experiments and process-based modelling explorations.     

Demographic trends,pronatalism, and nationalist ideologies in the late twentieth century

This article explores the relationship between demographic trends and nationalist ideologies through an analysis of fertility policies in France, Romania, Singapore and Israel. Each of these countries has sought to increase birthrates through government initiatives. I examine the extent to which pronatalist programmes in these countries reflect ethno-nationalist ideologies, as opposed to more inclusive civic/cultural nationalist visions, and find that policies are moving in a more civic/cultural nationalist direction. Pronatalist policies are less often specifically aimed at dominant racial/ethnic groups and are less oriented towards 'traditional' gender roles. I argue that ethno-nationalist visions of the nation may become less influential, in part due to demographic imperatives.     

The body size of wild boar during the Mesolithic in southern Scandinavia

In order to study the body size of wild boarSus scrofa Linnaeus, 1758 during the Boreal and Atlantic Chronozones in southern Scandinavia, 12 measurements of teeth and bones from 32 Mesolithic sites from Scania (Sweden) and Zealand and Jutland (Denmark) were analysed. The osteometric analysis revealed that the body size of wild boar from Scania did not change during the period. The results indicate that the changes of ecological conditions during the transition from the Boreal to the Atlantic chronozones did not affect wild boar in the same way as red deer and roe deer, which decreased in body size during the period. The tooth size of wild boar from Zealand is smaller than in wild boar from Jutland and Scania during the Late Atlantic Chronozones, which probably is the result of the isolation of the population when Zealand became an island. Calculations of withers height show that wild boar in southern Scandinavia during the Atlantic Chronozones were of similar body size as recent wild boar from eastern Europe.