Role of the vitellus in the block to polyspermy in golden hamster eggs

The block to polyspermy in golden hamster eggs is believed to operate only at the zona pellucida. However, changes in the egg vitellus also prevent further entry of capacitated sperm. When zona-free hamster eggs spontaneously activated in vitro, and in vivo fertilized eggs at pronuclear stage were inseminated with capacitated human sperm, penetration did not occur. In the case of a homologous system using hamster sperm and in vivo fertilized hamster eggs, slight attachment of sperm was observed but no penetration. The cortical granules were found to be released in spontaneously activated and in fertilized eggs as observed by phase contrast microscopy. These observations suggest that the egg vitellus plays a role in the block to poiyspermy in addition to that of the zona block.     

Ion channels and signaling pathways used in the fast polyspermy block

Fertilization of an egg by multiple sperms, polyspermy, is lethal to most sexually reproducing species. To combat the entry of additional sperm into already fertilized eggs, organisms have developed various polyspermy blocks. One such barrier, the fast polyspermy block, uses a fertilization‐activated depolarization of the egg membrane to electrically inhibit supernumerary sperm from entering the egg. The fast block is commonly used by eggs of oviparous animals with external fertilization. In this review, we discuss the history of the fast block discovery, as well as general features shared by all organisms that use this polyspermy block. Given the diversity of habitats of external fertilizers, the fine details of the fast block‐signaling pathways differ drastically between species, including the identity of the depolarizing ions. We highlight the known molecular mediators of these signaling pathways in amphibians and echinoderms, with a fine focus on ion channels that signal these fertilization‐evoked depolarizations. We also discuss the investigation for a fast polyspermy block in mammals and teleost fish, and we outline potential fast block triggers. Since the first electrical recordings made on eggs in the 1950s, the fields of developmental biology and electrophysiology have substantially matured, and yet we are only now beginning to discern the intricate molecular mechanisms regulating the fast block to polyspermy.     

Mammalian egg coat modifications and the block to polyspermy

Fertilization by more than one sperm causes polyploidy, a condition that is generally lethal to the embryo in the majority of animal species. To prevent this occurrence, eggs have developed a series of mechanisms that block polyspermy at the level of the plasma membrane or their extracellular coat. In this review, we first introduce the mammalian egg coat, the zona pellucida (ZP), and summarize what is currently known about its composition, structure, and biological functions. We then describe how this specialized extracellular matrix is modified by the contents of cortical granules (CG), secretory organelles that are exocytosed by the egg after gamete fusion. This process releases proteases, glycosidases, lectins and zinc onto the ZP, resulting in a series of changes in the properties of the egg coat that are collectively referred to as hardening. By drawing parallels with comparable modifications of the vitelline envelope of nonmammalian eggs, we discuss how CG‐dependent modifications of the ZP are thought to contribute to the block to polyspermy. Moreover, we argue for the importance of obtaining more information on the architecture of the ZP, as well as systematically investigating the many facets of ZP hardening.     

植物亲缘地理学的研究现状与发展趋势

新生代以来剧烈的地质和气候变化,特别是第四纪冰期和间冰期的反复交错对温带植物类群的地理分布格局、种群结构和物种分化造成了深刻影响。近20年来,随着分子标记技术的发展和分析方法的成熟,植物亲缘地理学利用基因谱系关系和在种群中的时空分布来追溯种群的进化历史,在探讨植物类群对地质气候变迁的响应以及种群分化的历史成因等方面开展了大量工作,取得了一些重要进展。在取得这些成绩的同时,作者也注意到了被研究者所忽略的一些问题。试图对这些问题进行初步的总结,着重于分析方法和几个常用软件的使用,并对今后的发展趋势进行了展望。     

Preventing polyspermy in mammalian eggs—Contributions of the membrane block and other mechanisms

The egg's blocks to polyspermy (fertilization of an egg by more than one sperm) were originally identified in marine and aquatic species with external fertilization, but polyspermy matters in mammalian reproduction too. Embryonic triploidy is a noteworthy event associated with pregnancy complications and loss. Polyspermy is a major cause of triploidy with up to 80% of triploid conceptuses being the result of dispermic fertilization. The mammalian female reproductive tract regulates the number of sperm that reach the site of fertilization, but mammals also utilize egg‐based blocks to polyspermy. The egg‐based blocks occur on the mammalian egg coat (the zona pellucida) and the egg plasma membrane, with apparent variation between different mammalian species regarding the extent to which one or both are used. The zona pellucida block to polyspermy has some similarities to the slow block in water‐dwelling species, but the mammalian membrane block to polyspermy differs substantially from the fast electrical block that has been characterized in marine and aquatic species. This review discusses what is known about the incidence of polyspermy in mammals and about the mammalian membrane block to polyspermy, as well as notes some lesser‐characterized potential mechanisms contributing to polyspermy prevention in mammals.     

植物古基因组学研究进展

植物古基因组学是基因组学一个新兴分支,从现存物种中重建其祖先基因组,推断在古历史中导致形成现存物种的进化或物种形成事件。高通量测序技术的不断革新使测序读长更长、更准确,加快了植物参考基因组序列的组装进程,为古基因组学研究提供了大批量可靠的现存物种的基因组序列资源。全基因组复制(whole-genome duplication, WGD)亦称古多倍化,使植物基因组快速重组,丢失大量基因,增加结构变异,对植物进化极其重要。本文综述了植物基因组测序与组装研究进展、植物古基因组学的原理、植物基因组WGD事件以及植物祖先基因组进化场景,并对未来植物古基因组学研究进行了展望。     

Fundamental issues, recent advances, and future directions in myodynamics

A state-of-the-art report is presented on recent progress in selected areas of myodynamics, but also on problems that severely hamper the further development of the discipline. Significant advances have been made in elucidating the force-producing interaction between actin and the myosin-S1-subunit, including the localization of the most probable molecular site of power stroke initiation. Concerning the architecture of the myostructures, strong experimental evidence has accumulated for numerous intra-, inter-, and extramuscular pathways for lateral force transmission in addition to the serial sarcomere-to-sarcomere myotendinous path.

It is shown that contemporary muscle models are inadequate in most respects and lag far behind the requirements an appropriate myodynamic model should fulfil. A similar comment applies to the current approaches designed to solve the myoskeletal indeterminacy problem. These formulations neglect myodynamic properties and do not allow for the implementation of biologically realistic objective functions. The solutions currently obtained are highly unsatisfactory. New research directions to rectify these situations are suggested, also with regard to the identification of subject-specific myodynamic parameters.     

In vivo imaging of malaria parasites--recent advances and future directions

A new view into the life of malaria parasites is now possible owing to recent advances in imaging techniques and to the generation of tagged parasites. Insights into how parasites interact with their insect vectors and mammalian hosts have been gained by the study of various parasitic forms in their natural environment. Quantitative analysis of Plasmodium ookinete motility has revealed different modes of motility in parasite invasion of the mosquito gut and the extrusion of invaded gut cells from the epithelium. Similar analysis with Plasmodium sporozoites has revealed the importance of parasite motility in transmission from the mosquito vector to the mammalian host.     

高光谱遥感技术在植物功能性状监测中的应用与展望

植物功能性状作为指示植物对环境适应和进化的可量度特征,其变异格局和驱动机制是植物生态学和地球系统建模的重要研究内容。传统野外测定方法费时费力费钱,且通常关注生长季和优势物种,使得功能性状的尺度延展和时空覆盖存在极大挑战。近些年兴起的多尺度高光谱遥感技术为解决当前植物功能性状数据时空覆盖度差的问题提供了新的思路和方法。该文在概述高光谱遥感技术监测植物功能性状的基本原理和发展简史的基础上,详细介绍了当前光谱-性状关系的主要建模方法,即经验或半经验方法、物理模型反演方法,其中以经验统计模型方法中的偏最小二乘回归使用最为广泛。进一步结合实例,重点讨论了高光谱遥感技术在叶片、群落和景观尺度监测植物功能性状的应用及存在的主要问题。最后,为促进高光谱技术在植物功能性状及其多样性监测方面的研究,提出以下4个未来应该重点关注的方向:1)检验光谱-性状模型的普适性,并解析其背后的调控机理;2)发展光谱-性状关系尺度延展的方法体系;3)解析植物功能性状及其多样性的时空变异和调控机制; 4)探究环境-植物功能多样性-生物多样性-生态系统功能间的关联。     

Physiological polyspermy: Selection of a sperm nucleus for the development of diploid genomes in amphibians

The union between a sperm and an egg nucleus in egg fertilization is necessary to mix genetic materials to create a new diploid genome for the next generation. In most animals, only one sperm is incorporated into the egg (monospermy), but several animals exhibit physiological polyspermy in which several sperms enter the egg during normal fertilization. However, only one sperm nucleus forms the zygote nucleus with the egg nucleus, even in a polyspermic egg. The cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in the selection of sperm nuclei in the egg cytoplasm have been well investigated in urodele amphibians. The principal sperm nucleus develops a larger sperm aster and contacts the egg nucleus to form a zygote nucleus, whereas other accessory sperm nuclei are unable to approach the egg nucleus. The diploid zygote nucleus induces cleavage and participates in embryonic development, whereas the accessory sperm nuclei undergo pyknosis and degenerate. We propose several models to account for the mechanisms of the selection of one sperm nucleus and the degeneration of accessory sperm nuclei. The roles of physiological polyspermy in animal reproduction are discussed by comparison with other polyspermic species.     

植物物候与气候研究进展

植物物候及其变化是多个环境因子综合影响的结果,其中气候是最重要、最活跃的环境因子。主要从气候环境角度分析了植物物候与气候以及气候变化间的相互关系,概述了国内外有关植物物候及物候模拟等方面的研究进展。表明,温度是影响物候变化最重要的因子;同时,水分成为胁迫因子时对物候的影响也十分重要。近50a左右,世界范围内的植物物候呈现出了春季物候提前,秋季物候推迟或略有推迟的特征,从而导致了多数植物生长季节的延长,并成为全球物候变化的趋势。全球气候变暖改变了植物开始和结束生长的日期,其中冬季、春季气温的升高使植物的春季物候提前是植物生长季延长的主要原因。目前对物候学的研究方向主要集中在探讨物候与气候变化之间的关系,而模型模拟是定量研究气候变化与植物物候之间关系的重要方式,国内外已经开发出多种物候模型来分析气候驱动与物候响应之间的因果关系。另外遥感资料的应用也为物候模型研究提供了新的方向。物候机理研究、物候与气候关系以及物候模型研究将是研究的重点。     

Development of the competence of bovine oocytes to release cortical granules and block polyspermy after meiotic maturation

Bovine immature oocytes do not have the ability to block polyspermic penetration. The present study was conducted to determine whether this is correlated to cortical granule (CG) distribution and the competence of oocytes to release CG upon sperm penetration, and whether the ability of bovine oocytes to release CG develops during in vitro maturation. Fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated Lens culinaris agglutinin was used for detecting CG in immature and mature oocytes before and after sperm penetration and electric stimulation. The labeled oocytes were examined with laser confocal and fluorescent microscopes. The results show that CG exist as clusters in all immature oocytes. The CG were not released from immature oocytes exposed to electric pulse or penetrated by spermatozoa, resulting in 94% of oocytes being polyspermic. When immature oocytes were cultured for 22h in vitro , 81% extruded the first polar body and reached metaphase II. In mature oocytes, 25% of oocytes showed CG clusters, 42% and 33% of oocytes showed partial and complete CG dispersion, respectively. When mature oocytes were inseminated in vitro , only 15% of oocytes were polyspermic. Cortical granule exocytosis occurred in 97% of oocytes after sperm penetration and 84% of oocytes released all of the CG 18 h after insemination. Electric pulse induced all of the mature oocytes to release CG but only 55% released all of their CG 18 h post stimulation. These results indicate that polyspermy in immature bovine oocytes is the result of the complete failure of the oocyte to release CG after sperm penetration. Bovine oocytes became competent to release CG by sperm penetration and electric stimulation after meiotic maturation. These results provide evidence that CG exocytosis plays an important role(s) in the establishment of the block to polyspermy in bovine oocytes.     

The risk of polyspermy in three congeneric sea urchins and its implications for gametic incompatibility and reproductive isolation

Developmental failure caused by excess sperm (polyspermy) is thought to be an important mechanism driving the evolution of gamete-recognition proteins, reproductive isolation, and speciation in marine organisms. However, these theories assume that there is heritable variation in the susceptibility to polyspermy and that this variation is related to the overall affinity between sperm and eggs. These assumptions have not been critically examined. We investigated the relationship between ease of fertilization and susceptibility to polyspermy within and among three congeneric sea urchins. The results from laboratory studies indicate that, both within and among species, individuals and species that produce eggs capable of fertilization at relatively low sperm concentrations are more susceptible to polyspermy, whereas individuals and species producing eggs that require higher concentrations of sperm to be fertilized are more resistant to polyspermy. This relationship sets the stage for selection on gamete traits that depend on sperm availability and for sexual conflict that can influence the evolution of gamete-recognition proteins and eventually lead to reproductive isolation.     

Climate change experiments in temperate grasslands: synthesis and future directions

The immediate need to understand the complex responses of grasslands to climate change, to ensure food supplies and to mitigate future climate change through carbon sequestration, necessitate a global, synthesized approach. Numerous manipulative experiments have altered temperature or precipitation, often in conjunction with other interacting factors such as grazing, to understand potential effects of climate change on the ecological integrity of temperate grasslands and understand the mechanisms of change. Although the different ways in which temperature and precipitation may change to effect grasslands were well represented, variability in methodology limited generalizations. Results from these experiments were also largely mixed and complex; thus, a broad understanding of temperate grassland responses to these factors remains elusive. A collaboration based on a set of globally dispersed, inexpensive experiments with consistent methodology would provide the data needed to better understand responses of temperate grassland to climate change.     

Therapeutic advances targeting tumor angiogenesis in pancreatic cancer: Current dilemmas and future directions

Pancreatic cancer (PC) is one of the most lethal malignancies, which is generally resistant to various treatments. Tumor angiogenesis is deemed to be a pivotal rate-determining step for tumor growth and metastasis. Therefore, anti-angiogenetic therapy is a rational strategy to treat various cancers. However, numerous clinical trials on anti-angiogenetic therapies for PC are overwhelmingly disappointing. The unique characteristics of tumor blood vessels in PC, which are desperately lacking and highly compressed by the dense desmoplastic stroma, are reconsidered to explore some optimized strategies. In this review, we mainly focus on its specific characteristics of tumor blood vessels, discuss the current dilemmas of anti-angiogenic therapy in PC and their underlying mechanisms. Furthermore, we point out the future directions, including remodeling the abnormal vasculature or even reshaping the whole tumor microenvironment in which they are embedded to improve tumor microcirculation, and then create therapeutic vulnerabilities to the current available therapeutic strategies.     

Requirement of sperm‐oocyte plasma membrane fusion for establishment of the plasma membrane block to polyspermy in human pronuclear oocytes

We investigated whether the incorporation of the sperm membrane into the oolemma contributes to the human plasma membrane block to polyspermy. We used zona pellucida–free oocytes fertilized by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) or activated by parthenogenetic activation. Only two of the 35 pronuclear oocytes fertilized by spermatozoa (control) demonstrated one single penetrating spermatozoa. In contrast, the majority of ICSI and parthenogenetically activated pronuclear oocytes were penetrated with an average of three spermatozoa per oocyte. The number of fused and binding spermatozoa of ICSI and parthenogenetically activated oocytes were significantly higher than in control oocytes (3.5 ± 0.6 and 4.3 ± 0.6 for ICSI; 3.0 ± 0.3 and 3.8 ± 0.4 for activated and 0.2 ± 0.1 and 0.6 ± 0.2 for controls, respectively, P < 0.01). Furthermore, the cortical granules were released from the cortex of ICSI and calcium ionophore‐puromycin‐activated pronuclear oocytes to the same extent as that of pronuclear oocytes fertilized by spermatozoa. These results suggest that the establishment of the plasma membrane block to sperm penetration in the human oocyte may require a fusion process between sperm and oocyte plasma membranes. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 52:183–188, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

滨海湿地植物种群Allee效应驱动机制研究进展

Allee效应是指生物个体适应度与种群规模或密度之间呈正向关联的现象,因与植物种群动态和种群灭绝密切相关而受到生态学家的普遍重视。阐释多重胁迫下滨海湿地植物种群响应机制,从保护生物多样性和维持生态系统稳定性层面发展系统性生态修复措施成为相关研究关注的重点。本研究分别从遗传过程、花粉扩散过程和生物互作关系不同层面,总结分析了植物种群Allee效应驱动机制的研究进展。一方面,植物因遗传过程中近交衰退、遗传变异丧失、有害突变累积等遗传结构改变造成繁殖失败而引发Allee效应;另一方面,植物花粉扩散过程和动植物互作关系影响下的花粉限制也通过影响植物种群繁殖力成为驱动Allee效应的关键因素。滨海湿地水盐梯度变异及格局破碎化影响下,植物种群遭受Allee效应的风险需引起关注,维持滨海湿地植物种群适宜分布格局和生物连通过程成为缓解Allee效应的重要手段。结合生理学与化学生态学研究手段和长时间尺度动态监测技术,有助于进一步阐释环境及生物等多重胁迫下Allee效应的非线性驱动机制。