Single-cell analysis of the developing human testis reveals somatic niche cell specification and fetal germline stem cell establishment

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Single-cell analysis of human testis aging and correlation with elevated body mass index

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Densin is a novel cell membrane protein of Sertoli cells in the testis

Cell-cell interactions between Sertoli cells and germ cells are crucial for the maturation of germ cells in spermatogenesis but the structural and functional aspects of the interactions remain to be fully elucidated. Densin is a junction protein suggested to play a role in establishment of specific cell-cell contacts in the post-synaptic densities of the brain and the slit diaphragm of the kidney podocyte. In the present study, densin was discovered to be expressed in the testis of the man and the mouse. Expression of densin at the gene and the protein level was studied by using RT-PCR and Western blotting analyses, and the localization of densin was explored with immunofluorescence staining. RT-PCR and Western blotting analyses showed that densin is expressed at the gene and the protein levels. Immunofluorescence staining localized the expression of densin to the cell membranes of Sertoli cells suggesting that densin may be an adherens junction protein between Sertoli cells and developing germ cells. Densin is a novel testicular protein expressed in the cell membranes of Sertoli cells. Its functional role remains to be assessed.     

The matricellular protein SPARC is internalized in Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells during testis differentiation

The gene encoding the matricellular protein secreted protein, acidic and rich in cysteine (SPARC) was identified in a screen for genes expressed sex-specifically during mouse gonad development, as being strongly upregulated in the male gonad from very early in testis development. We present here a detailed analysis of SPARC gene and protein expression during testis development, from 11.5 to 15.5 days post coitum (dpc). Section in situ hybridization analysis revealed that SPARC mRNA is expressed by the Sertoli cells in the testis cords and the fetal Leydig cells, found within the interstitial space between the testis cords. Immunodetection with anti-SPARC antibody showed that the protein was located inside the testis cords, within the cytoplasm of Sertoli and germ cells. In the interstitium, SPARC was present intracellularly within the Leydig cells. The internalization of SPARC in Sertoli, Leydig, and germ cells suggests that it plays an intracellular regulatory role in these cell types during fetal testis development.     

Distribution of gelsolin in human testis

Gelsolin, an actin-binding and severing protein present in many mammalian cells, was characterized in human testis. Although abundant in testicular extracts, gelsolin was not detected in purified spermatogenic cells by immunoblot analysis. Immunofluorescence studies of testis sections showed that gelsolin has two main localizations: peritubular cells and the seminiferous epithelium. In peritubular cells, gelsolin was present together with α-SM actin, in agreement with the myoid cell characteristics of these cells. In a large proportion of the tubules, gelsolin was found mainly, together with actin, in the apical part of the seminiferous epithelium. This localization of gelsolin also was observed in seminiferous tubules with a partial or complete absence of germinal cells, which evokes a presence of gelsolin at the apex of Sertoli cells. However, in normal testis, a complex pattern of gelsolin labeling was also present, mostly in the apical third of the epithelium, around cells or groups of cells, mainly spermatids, and, less frequently, in various other localizations from the apical to the basal part of the seminiferous epithelium. Taken together, these observations suggest that gelsolin may play different functions in the seminiferous epithelium: (1) regulation of the dynamic alterations of the actin cytoskeleton in the apical cytoplasm of Sertoli cells, and (2) modification of actin filaments assemblies in specific structures at germ cell-Sertoli cell contacts. Thereby, the actin-modulating properties of gelsolin are probably involved in reorganization of the seminiferous epithelium related to germ cell differentiation. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 48:63–70, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The Dynamic Transcriptional Cell Atlas of Testis Development during Human Puberty

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Concomitant sertoli and leydig cell tumor of the testis: a case report

A rare intratubular gonadal stromal tumor was present in the testis of a 45-year-old man who was admitted to our hospital with the chief complaint of gradual enlargement of the left testis. Tumoral markers were negative and no extension was observed. The tumor comprised an intratubular mixture of two types of tumor cells with intercellular junctions: the predominant tumor cells were consistent with a Sertoli cell origin and cells comprising the minor population consistent with a Leydig cell origin. The patient is disease free after 6-month follow-up. The case is considered to be a testicular mixed tubular Sertoli-Leydig cell tumor. It highlights a rare type of primary tumor of the testis that features a good prognosis.     

The paracrine role of Sertoli cells on Leydig cell function

Conclusion Local regulation of testicular function depends upon multiple interactions between testicularcells, some of them mediated by soluble factors (Fig. 2). Under physiological conditionsgonadotropins are required for testicular maturation and function, but the responsiveness ofsomatic testicular cells to these hormones is modulated by factors produced and acting withinthe testis. Moreover, the production of these factors, and sometimes the responsiveness oftesticular cells to these factors, are gonadotropin-dependent. While the paracrine regulation ofSertoli function by Leydig cells seems to be mediated mainly by a direct or indirect effects oftestosterone, several factors seem to be involved in the FSH-stimulated effects of Sertoli cellson Leydig cells. The nature of the factors implicated in Sertoli-germ cell interactions ispractically unknown. The amounts of these factors might be very low, although sufficient toact in a paracrine, autocrine, juxtracrine or cryptocrine manner, and their isolation andpurification would be a very difficult task.Abbreviations EGF: epidermal growth factor - FSH: follicle-stimulating hormone - GH: growth hormone - hCG: human chorionic gonadotropin - IGF-I: insulin-like growth factor I - LH: luteinizing hormone - TGF-: transforming growth factor - TGF-: transforming growth factor      

An investigation of the role of the anther tapetum during microspore development using genetic cell ablation

The effects on anther development of a fusion of the Arabidopsis anther-specific apg gene promoter to a ribonuclease (barnase) in transgenic tobacco plants were examined. Contrary to expectations, viable pollen grains were produced by these plants despite the demonstration that ribonuclease expression in the microspores and tapetum caused targeted cell ablation. Transformed plants were reduced in male fertility due to ablation of a proportion of pollen dependent on apg-barnase locus number. Plants were otherwise phenotypically normal and fully female fertile, confirming the anther-specific nature of the apg promoter. In microspores inheriting an apg-barnase locus following meiosis, loss of cell viability, as judged by fluorescein diacetate staining, occurred during mid to late microspore development. Microspores not inheriting a transgene went on to mature into viable pollen grains. Premature degeneration of the tapetum was also observed as a result of apg-barnase expression, but this did not appear to disrupt the subsequent microspore and pollen developmental programmes. This was substantiated by observations of microspore development in plants in which the tapetum was rescued from ablation by crossing in a second transgene encoding a tapetum-specific inhibitor of the ribonuclease. It was determined that tapetum cell disruption occurs at the early to mid uninucleate microspore stage in apg-barnase transformants. The data presented show that after this point in microspore development the tapetum is no longer essential for the production of viable pollen in tobacco.     

Ultrastructure of germ cell development in the human fetal testis

Summary Electron-microscopic examination of the human fetal testis between 10 and 20 weeks gestation reveals the presence of two distinct cell types within the tubules: Sertoli cells and germ cells. The latter are distinguished by their spherical shape, smooth nuclear membranes, globular mitochondria and paucity of cytoplasmic organelles. The gonocytes, or primitive germ cells, occur as single cells in the central portions of the tubules. Their chromatin is finely granular and evenly dispersed. Nucleoli are centrally placed and of uniform electron density. Various stages in the migration of gonocytes to the tubular periphery are indicated by the extension of cytoplasmic processes toward the basal lamina. Bands of microtubules are present within the processes. Spermatogonia are arranged in pairs and groups at the tubular periphery. They lack the nucleolar and mitochondrial characteristics of adult spermatogonia. Except for slight changes in chromatin density and nucleolar structure, the fetal spermatogonia retain the ultrastructural characteristics of gonocytes. Intercellular bridges connect adjacent spermatogonia. Degeneration affecting large numbers of germ cells, but primarily gonocytes, begins with nuclear infolding and chromatin condensation and eventually involves both nuclear and cytoplasmic structures. The degenerated cells are removed by phagocytosis by adjacent Sertoli cells. Large phagosomes are present in the cytoplasm of many of the Sertoli cells.Supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation and by General Research Support Grant RR055511 from the National Institutes of Health. Technical assistance was provided by Mrs. Lucy A. Conner.     

Histological, histochemical, enzyme histochemical and ultrastructural investigations of the testis of Padogobius martensi between annual breeding seasons

From July to March, the testis of the spring‐spawning freshwater goby Padogobius martensi is characterized by spermatogonial proliferation. A close correlation exists among type of proliferating spermatogonia, gonado‐somatic (I_G) profiles and morphological and functional variations of the Leydig cells. The I_G reach their minimal levels by the end of summer and increase progressively but modestly during autumn and winter. Declining I_G levels are associated with proliferation of primary spermatogonia only, whereas increasing I_G levels are associated with predominant proliferation of secondary spermatogonia. Minimal I_G levels are reached when the germinal epithelium is formed by a continuum of primary spermatogonia and associated Sertoli cells. The proliferation of secondary spermatogonia begins only at this time. Spermatogenesis in autumn occurs when spermatogonial cysts contain at the most 16 cells and it rarely results in the maturation of several cysts so that the amount of sperm cells produced is either negligible or scarce. A number of degenerating cells are usually present within the spermatogonial and meiotic cysts. Leydig cells are the unique cells that display features of steroidogenic cells: mitochondria with tubular cristae, extensive smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), 3β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3β‐HSD) and glucose‐6‐phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) activity and sudanophilia. Light and dark Leydig cell varieties are always present. During regression, Leydig cells undergo a marked decrease in SER amount, mitochondrial sizes and number of mitochondrial cristae. In parallel, the 3β‐HSD and G6PD activities and sudanophilia decrease progressively until they become undetectable by the end of regression. In autumn, mitochondria increase in size, reaching sizes similar to those observed at the end of the spawning season in the light cells, but not in the dark cells. The SER, on the contrary, undergoes a modest and irregular increase only in a part of the Leydig cells, mostly of the light type. In parallel, the 3β‐HSD and G6PD activities increase until they become moderately intense by the end of autumn. At the end of winter, the SER is extensive and regularly dilated in both Leydig cell types, whereas mitochondria still have sizes similar to those observed in December. The 3β‐HSD and G6PD activities are strong and sudanophilia is again detectable. Sertoli cells undergo changes in shape and position in relation to the proliferation of primary spermatogonia and the development of cysts. A junction modulation occurs in association with these changes. Sertoli cells also undergo changes indicative of a decrease in activity immediately after spawning (loss of mitochondrial cristae and clarification of the mitochondrial matrix) and of an increase in activity by the end of the regressing phase (darkening of the mitochondrial matrix and increase in mitochondrial cristae, rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and free ribosomes). In addition, they are involved in the phagocytosis of degenerating germ cells at all stages of their development. Macrophages are found in the testis interstitium only, where they are usually adjacent to Leydig cells, myoid cells and blood capillaries and do not participate in the phagocytosis of degenerating germ cells. Myoid cells do not undergo ultrastructural changes except for an increase in the amount of heterochromatin by the end of spawning. The meaning of the autumnal spermatogenic wave and the relationships between the development of the germinal epithelium and the changes of the Leydig and Sertoli cells are discussed.     

A carrier-free cell superfusion system for the study of androgen formation from precursor steroids by isolated rat testis Leydig cells under steady-state conditions

A cell superfusion system is presented in which cells can be kept in suspension if there is an equilibrium between cell sedimentation velocity and superfusion medium flow velocity. Since the cross-section area of the central core increases gradually, theoretical considerations and experimental results demonstrate that single isolated cells as well as small cell aggregates are not able to leave the superfusion chamber. The whole apparatus is constructed from glass to avoid adsorption of steroids. As an application of the system, androgen formation from progestin precursors by isolated rat testis Leydig cells is shown. Under steady-state conditions, constant concentrations of substrates, intermediates, and products are measured in the collected effluent. In contrast to conventional cell incubation, constant testosterone formation rates and linearly increasing cumulative testosterone production are achieved.     

Response of the human testis to long-term estrogen treatment: Morphology of Sertoli cells,Leydig cells and spermatogonial stem cells

Summary The present investigation is concerned with the morphological changes observed in human testicular tissue following prolonged estrogen administration. Testicular material obtained from 11 transsexual patients who had been submitted to long-term estrogen treatment prior to sex-reversal surgery was studied by means of light- and electron microscopy.The testes of all patients examined present a more or less uniform appearance: There are narrow seminiferous cords surrounded by an extensively thickened lamina propria. They contain Sertoli cells and spermatogonia exclusively. There is no evidence of typical Leydig cells.The persisting spermatogonia show the characteristic features of pale type-A spermatogonia, whereas dark type-A spermatogonia are almost completely eliminated from the epithelium. In view of the fact that spermatogonia that survived radiotherapy and treatment with various noxious agents have recently been regarded as the stem cells of the human testis, it is suggested that also the majority of those spermatogonial types that are less sensitive to disturbances of the endocrine balance may consist of stem cells. The present results, therefore, corroborate the concept that the stem cells of the human testis may be derived from pale type-A spermatogonia or the variants of this cell type.Sertoli cells display two types of ovoid nuclei. In contrast to untreated material the nuclei lie adjacent to the basal lamina, and organelles and telolysosomes are confined to the apical cytoplasm. The apico-basal differentiation of mature cells, therefore, is not observed. Moreover, typical organelles and inclusions of mature cells are absent, as are the junctional specializations. Thus, Sertoli cells have transformed into immature cells, resembling precursors prior to puberty.Fibroblast-like cells in the interstitial tissue, which display strongly lobulated nuclei, a well-developed smooth endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets, and numerous inclusions are assumed to represent dedifferentiated Leydig cells.Since after estrogen treatment serum testosterone and gonadotropin levels are known to be reduced, it appears that the morphological changes correlate well with the endocrine status.     

Glycogen content during the postnatal differentiation of the Leydig cell in the mouse testis

Summary The concentration and distribution of glycogen in relation to postnatal differentiation of the mouse Leydig cell are studied by biochemical and ultrastructural methods. Glycogen decreases to less than one third in the first twelve days after birth. This decrease is accompanied by modifications of its distribution in the cytoplasm. In the newborn it is abundant and arranged in clusters of beta particles; in the mature Leydig cell, glycogen is found scattered in extremely low concentration interspersed among elements of the endoplasmic reticulum.The role of glycogen during Leydig cell differentiation can be interpreted as a source of energy and/or as a source of building material in the biogenesis of membranous components.This work was supported by Grant M 63,121 from the Population Council, U.S.A.Fellow Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientificas y Técnicas, Argentina.     

In vivo analysis of phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by testicular Sertoli cells

Sertoli cells, a somatic cell type present within the seminiferous tubules of testes, are responsible for the phagocytic elimination of apoptotic spermatogenic cells. We here established an in vivo assay system that enables us to quantitatively analyze Sertoli cell phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in testes of live mice. Apoptotic cells were injected into the seminiferous tubules of spermatogenic cell-depleted mice, and the occurrence of phagocytosis by Sertoli cells was examined by histochemically analyzing testis sections or dispersed testicular cells. We reproducibly observed similar levels of phagocytosis in either examination, and the ratio of Sertoli cells that engulfed injected apoptotic cells was almost the same between the two examinations. These results indicated that a quantitative in vivo assay system was established using the seminiferous tubules of live mice as 'test tubes.' We then determined the requirements for Sertoli cell phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using this assay. For this purpose, apoptotic cells were injected together with various phagocytosis inhibitors, and the extent of phagocytosis by Sertoli cells was determined. The results revealed that Sertoli cells phagocytose apoptotic cells in a manner dependent on class B scavenger receptor type I (SR-BI) of Sertoli cells and phosphatidylserine exposed at the surface of target cells, as previously observed in vitro using primary cultures of dispersed rat testicular cells. Furthermore, the amount of SR-BI in Sertoli cells increased after injection of apoptotic cells into the seminiferous tubules, suggesting a positive feedback regulation of the expression of this phagocytosis receptor.     

探索Sertoli细胞对去除精原细胞的动态反应

目的探索Sertoli细胞对去除小鼠精原细胞后睾丸的动态反应。方法采用15、30和44 mg/kg的白消安腹腔注射法建立不同程度去除精原细胞的动物模型,处理后5 d和28 d时对睾丸进行组织学检测,评价精子发生状态,并运用实时定量荧光PCR技术检测这两个时期睾丸GDNF、PLZF、Nanog和GFRα1基因mRNA的表达量。结果在白消安处理后第5天,GDNF出现显著升高,且呈剂量依赖趋势,而PLZF与GFRɑ1并无显著变化,睾丸组织学观察亦无明显变化。在白消安处理后28 d时,GDNF、PLZF、Nanog、GFRɑ1基因mRNA相对表达量均出现大幅度的升高,睾丸组织学切片观察显示随着给药剂量的增加,精子发生受到的损伤愈加严重。结论 Sertoli细胞早在白消安处理后第5天就对精原细胞的变化发生了反应,Sertoli细胞分泌GDNF的能力发生代偿性增加,进而刺激精原干细胞自我更新速度加快,体现在Nanog和PLZF水平提高,从而实现精子发生的重建。     

Sertoli cells in the testis of caecilians, Ichthyophis tricolor and Uraeotyphlus cf. narayani (Amphibia: Gymnophiona): light and electron microscopic perspective

The caecilians have evolved a unique pattern of cystic spermatogenesis in which cysts representing different stages in spermatogenesis coexist in a testis lobule. We examined unsettled issues relating to the organization of the caecilian testis lobules, including the occurrence of a fatty matrix, the possibility of both peripheral and central Sertoli cells, the origin of Sertoli cells from follicular cells, and the disengagement of older Sertoli cells to become loose central Sertoli cells. We subjected the testis of Ichthyophis tricolor (Ichthyophiidae) and Uraeotyphlus cf. narayani (Uraeotyphliidae) from the Western Ghats of Kerala, India, to light and transmission electron microscopic studies. Irrespective of the functional state of the testis, whether active or regressed, Sertoli cells constitute a permanent feature of the lobules. The tall Sertoli cells adherent to the basal lamina with basally located pleomorphic nuclei extend deeper into the lobule to meet at the core. There they provide for association of germ cells at different stages of differentiation, an aspect that has earlier been misconceived as the fatty matrix. Germ cells up to the 4-cell stage remain in the intercalating region of the Sertoli cells and they are located at the apices of the Sertoli cells from the 8-cell stage onwards. The developing germ cells are intimately associated with the Sertoli cell adherent to the basal lamina until spermiation. There are ameboid cells in the core of the lobules that appear to interact with the germ cells at the face opposite to their attachment with the Sertoli cells. Adherence of the Sertoli cells to the basal lamina is a permanent feature of the caecilian testicular lobules. The ameboid cells in the core are neither Sertoli cells nor their degeneration products.