Inbreeding among endogamous groups in three multicaste villages of Srikakulam district,Andhra Pradesh,India

Abstract

In the present paper 702 families have been studied belonging to different endogamous groups in three multicaste villages of Srikakulam District, Andhra Pradesh. It is observed that 33.76 per cent of families are consanguineous marriages. With regard to the types of marriages, 12.11 per cent are uncle‐niece; 14.10 per cent are matrilateral cross‐cousins; 5.84 per cent are patrilateral cross‐cousins; 0.57 per cent are first cousins once removed, and 1.14 per cent are second cousins. There are only six couples (0.86 per cent) in intercaste marriages. The coefficient of inbreeding for autosomal and sex‐linked genes, 0.045 and 0.059, respectively, for Chakalis which are higher than Kalingas (F = 0.03; F1 = 0.038), Segidis (F = 0.031; F1 = 0.041), Velamas (F = 0.026; F1 = 0.036), Vysyas (F = 0.027; F1 = 0.034), Malas (F = 0.017; F1 = 0.026), and others (F = 0.026; F1 = 0.032). The t‐tests for mean marriage distances are statistically significant among all castes, but chi‐squares for intergroup difference of consanguineous and nonconsanguineous marriages are statistically significant only among Kalingas and Chakalis, Vysyas and Chakalis, and Malas and Chakalis.     

Factors influencing genetic counseling attendance rate: A geographically based study

Abstract

A study of factors influencing genetic counseling attendance rate has been conducted in the Bouches‐du‐Rhône area, in the south of France. In this area, a birth defects monitoring system (Eurocat n°22) annually covers 23,000 births. All the genetic services are delivered by only one genetic center located in Marseilles, and the data collected are computerized. The comparison of these two data bases gives an opportunity to estimate the rate of genetic counseling attendance after the occurrence of an affected stillbirth or live birth. Among the parents of 358 infants born in 1983–84 in this area with a pathology requiring genetic counseling, 226 (63 per cent) attended the Genetic Center within the first year after birth. The rate of attendance is statistically higher (p < 0.01) for the parents who had a stillbirth (78 per cent) than for those who had a live birth (57 per cent). It is also higher (p < 0.01) for the Marseilles maternities group (68 per cent) than for the group outside Marseilles (50 per cent). The referral delays are also analyzed according to malformation etiology and to viability of the child by the eighth day of lue. Besides evaluating a particular genetic center's effectiveness in diffusing information to the public concerned, this work shows that couples’ request is strongly dependent on a psychological need.     

Heredity counseling

Abstract

An ecological analysis of infant mortality rates is conducted using data on Texas counties for the years 1968–72. It is found that when counties along the Texas‐Mexico border (which have unreasonably low infant death rates and which are economically less advantaged than the remainder of the counties) are excluded from the analysis, the associations between socioeconomic status variables and infant mortality rates improve considerably. A significant negative correlation between neonatal mortality and per cent Spanish surname is retained and does not disappear when the effects of other relevant variables (per cent Negro, per cent urban, and per cent below poverty) are controlled using partial correlation and regression analysis. Possible explanations for this unexpected finding are suggested, and implications for further research are discussed.     

Causes of low utilization of amniocentesis by women of advanced maternal age

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to determine current usage of amniocentesis by women of advanced maternal age in a southwestern Ohio county and to determine potential usage levels by surveying women not utilizing the procedure to understand their reasons. For women age 35 and older giving birth in Hamilton County, Ohio, the estimated percentage using amniocentesis was 3.9 in 1978, 7.6 in 1979, and 13.3 in 1980. Approximately comparable statewide utilization rates were 7.0, 11.5, and 17.2 respectively. A telephone survey during the summer of 1980 of 81 Hamilton County women age 35 and older recently giving birth to a normal baby found four main reasons why they did not utilize amniocentesis: (1) they did not feel at an increased risk (29.6 per cent); (2) they had never heard of the test (24.7 per cent); (3) they were opposed to abortion (21.0 per cent); and (4) no one suggested they have the test done (19.8 per cent). Their physicians reported that 81 per cent of these women had received prenatal counseling. Thus, of those counseled, over two‐thirds apparently missed at least one essential message of the counseling they were presumably provided. These findings, coupled with 47.7 per cent of women who knew about amniocentesis saying they would most likely use it if they became pregnant again and their physician recommended it, indicate that utilization of prenatal diagnosis by at least 50 per cent of women age 35 and older is likely with greater public education and greater support of the procedure by obstetricians.     

Contraceptive sterilization: A comparison of Mexican‐Americans and Anglos living in U.S. counties bordering Mexico

Abstract

Prior to the U.S.‐Mexico Border Survey of Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning conducted by the Centers for Disease Control in 1979, little information was available about the extent to which Mexican‐Americans in the U.S., relative to Anglos, were using male and female sterilization for contraceptive reasons. This paper compares Mexican‐Americans and Anglos for (a) prevalence of contraceptive sterilization; (b) social and demographic characteristics of users of contraceptive sterlization; and (c) tuning during the reproductive life cycle when contraceptive sterilization occurs. For both Mexican‐Americans and Anglos, contraceptive sterilization (male and female) was the second most prevalent method used. Anglos were more likely to use male than female sterilization (22.4 per cent and 19.5 per cent), while Mexican‐Americans were much more likely to use female than male sterilization (23.2 per cent and 5.8 per cent). Having an unwanted last live birth and/or high parity were important factors related to the use of female sterilization for both Mexican‐Americans and Anglos.     

Consanguineous marriages in Beirut: Time trends,spatial distribution

Abstract

Twenty‐five per cent of all marriages are consanguineous in a population‐based sample of couples from Beirut. Marriages between distant relatives decline with time, while first‐cousin marriages remain relatively stable. Among first‐cousin marriages, the proportions of father's brother's daughter marriages (37 per cent) and of patrilateral unions (48 per cent) are particularly low. A spatial representation demonstrates an uneven distribution of consanguineous marriages, and an association of high levels of endogamy with Muslim religion, low educational level, and low occupational status.     

Contraceptive use and efficacy in a genetically counseled population

Abstract

This paper reports contraceptive use and efficacy rates among 648 married women aged 15 to 44 who had received genetic counseling six months previously. Over half (53.5 per cent) of the counseled population were using non‐surgical contraception; 20 per cent were pregnant or postpartum; 10 per cent were seeking to become pregnant; 11 per cent were sterilized. Only 4.5 per cent were neither using contraceptives nor seeking to become pregnant. Women who were certain about their reproductive intentions after counseling utilized contraceptives effectively, with only two pregnancies at six months among those seeking to delay wanted pregnancies and only one pregnancy among those seeking to prevent pregnancy. This represents six‐month contraceptive failure rates of 4.3 and 2.1 per cent respectively for the two groups, rates similar to those with comparable intentions in the U. S. population at large. A distinguishing characteristic of the genetically counseled group was that 32 per cent of contraceptive users reported that their reproductive intentions were uncertain after counseling. The six‐month pregnancy rate in this uncertain group was 10 per cent.     

Incidence of Induced Abortion in Uganda, 2013: New Estimates Since 2003

BackgroundIn Uganda, abortion is permitted only when the life of a woman is in danger. This restriction compels the perpetuation of the practice in secrecy and often under unsafe conditions. In 2003, 294,000 induced abortions were estimated to occur each year in Uganda. Since then, no other research on abortion incidence has been conducted in the country.MethodsData from 418 health facilities were used to estimate the number and rate of induced abortion in 2013. An indirect estimation methodology was used to calculate the annual incidence of induced abortions ─ nationally and by major regions. The use of a comparable methodology in an earlier study permits assessment of trends between 2003 and 2013.ResultsIn 2013, an estimated 128,682 women were treated for abortion complications and an estimated 314,304 induced abortions occurred, both slightly up from 110,000 and 294,000 in 2003, respectively. The national abortion rate was 39 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15–49, down from 51 in 2003. Regional variation in abortion rates is very large, from as high as an estimated 77 per 1,000 women 15–49 in Kampala region, to as low as 18 per 1,000 women in Western region. The overall pregnancy rate also declined from 326 to 288; however the proportion of pregnancies that were unintended increased slightly, from 49% to 52%.ConclusionUnsafe abortion remains a major problem confronting Ugandan women. Although the overall pregnancy rate and the abortion rate declined in the past decade, the majority of pregnancies to Ugandan women are still unintended. These findings reflect the increase in the use of modern contraception but also suggest that a large proportion of women are still having difficulty practicing contraception effectively. Improved access to contraceptive services and abortion-related care are still needed.     

Vasectomy in Guatemala: A follow‐up study of five hundred acceptors

Abstract

Over a thousand vasectomies are performed yearly by the private family planning association (APROFAM) of Guatemala. This study surveyed the experience of five hundred men interviewed 12 to 36 months after vasectomy. Overall, the experience was reported to be positive. Most wives approved of the operation; the attention received at the clinic was satisfactory; and most men considered their general health, sex drive, and marital relations to be unchanged or improved. Negative aspects included post‐operative discomfort one month later (9 per cent) and failure of the operation (2 per cent). Reported satisfaction with the operation was high: 97 per cent expressed no regret. Further analysis indicates that satisfaction was not a function of sociodemographic characteristics, attitudes toward the clinic experience, post‐operative discomfort, or wife's attitude. Rather, dissatisfaction stemmed from failure of the operation or a perceived negative effect of the operation on one's health and sex life.     

Contraceptive practices and fertility among Southeast Asian,black, and white mothers attending a maternal infant care program

Abstract

The purpose of this analysis was to determine if there were differences in selected fertility characteristics including parity, pregnancy spacing, age at first pregnancy, age of menarche, breastfeeding postpartum, and contraceptive practices among white, black, Hmong, and other Southeast Asian mothers attending a maternal infant care program in Minneapolis, Minnesota, during 1980–82.

White and black mothers were younger than the Hmong and other Asian mothers. The lowest mean age of first pregnancy was among blacks. Ages of first pregnancy were similar for whites, Hmong, and other Asians, although the mean age of menarche was approximately two years later for Hmong and other Southeast Asian mothers compared to the white and black mothers.

Based on self reports at the first postpartum visit one month after delivery, 39 per cent of the whites and 25 per cent of the blacks were breastfeeding. In comparison 8.7 per cent of the Hmong and 17 per cent of the other southeast Asian mothers were breastfeeding.

Maternal age and age at first pregnancy were significant predictors of parity for whites, blacks, Hmong, and the other Southeast Asians. Ever‐use of contraception was a significant predictor of parity only for Hmong.

The highest proportion of ever‐users of contraception was among the white mothers (80 per cent) followed by the blacks (69.3 per cent) and other Asian mothers (34.8 per cent). Hmong mothers had the lowest proportion having used contraception (17.1 per cent).     

Childlessness: A panel study of expressed intentions and reported fertility

Abstract

The present research focuses on childed versus childless intentions and subsequent behavior and intentions for a panel of U. S. women. Utilizing data from the 1970 and 1975 National Fertility Surveys (reinterviewed women), we ascertain the consistency between intentions (1970) and behavior and intentions (1975). We find that while women who expressed a zero parity intention in 1970 were very consistent in their behavior and intentions in 1975, nearly 30 per cent of those women intending children had no children by 1975. Furthermore, of these 30 per cent, one‐third had changed their intention to zero parity by 1975. We find that changing intentions from more than zero to zero is associated with higher levels of education, slightly higher income, and to a lesser degree with the importance given religion and with labor force participation.     

The costs and benefits of screening for congenital hypothyroidism in Wisconsin

Abstract

A comprehensive benefit‐cost analysis of the screening program to detect newborns with congenital hypothyroidism in Wisconsin is presented. Congenital hypothyroidism, if left undetected and untreated at an early age, can have serious irreversible effects on the growth and development of the brain. The monetary costs of the detection and treatment program for congenital hypothyroidism were compared with the projected benefits (avoided costs) that result from the prevention of the mental retardation associated with the disorder. Future costs and benefits were determined using a 4 per cent, 7 per cent, and 10 per cent rate of discount. Net benefits (benefits minus costs) for detecting and treating one individual with congenital hypothyroidism were approximately $98,200 ($141,700 ‐ $43,500) using the 7 per cent rate of discount. Net benefits for detecting the 13 individuals with congenital hypothyroidism in 1981–1982 totaled $1,277,000.     

Voluntary Childlessness Among American Men and Women in the Late 1980's

Abstract

Most studies of childlessness in the United States have relied on unrepresentative, opportunistic samples collected in a variety of ways. Thus, the relationship of various correlates to childlessness is not well known. Some studies have focused on demographic variables, but have not examined attitudinal factors associated with childlessness—something the opportunistic samples have been able to do. In this paper we examine both attitudinal and demographic factors associated with childlessness in the United States. The data used in this paper are from the National Survey of Families and Households collected in 1987 and 1988. The data set includes both demographic data, perceived advantages and disadvantages of having children, and attitudinal data about related social issues. Overall, the rate of voluntary childlessness was not high. Only 3.5 per cent of the men and 2.8 per cent of the women reported that they were childless and did not expect to have children. Only one category of people (unmarried men and women over the age of 35) had rates that exceeded ten per cent. A combined variable of age and marital status was the best predictor of childlessness. A scale of reasons or justifications for having children was the next best predictor. In addition, attendance at religious services, number of hours the respondents desired to work and education (for women only) were related to childlessness. Those who scored highly on measures of support for traditional families and support of extended families also tended to have lower rates of childlessness. Occupational status, religious denomination, and race, on the other hand, were not significantly related to childlessness. Measures of gender equality, religious fundamentalism, and support for mothers working were also not related to childlessness.     

Sex differentials in perinatal mortality in china and Finland

Abstract

This study describes patterns of sex differentials in perinatal mortality in China and Finland. The analysis is based on three population‐based one‐year birth cohorts, one from Qingdao, China, in 1992 and two from Northern Finland in 1966 and 1985–86, comprised of 9,219, 11,422 and 9,207 singletons with at least 28 gestational weeks and 1000 g in birthweight, respectively. Both Finnish cohorts had an excess of male over female perinatal deaths, but in the Chinese cohort girls were more likely to die than boys. The adjusted odds ratio (OR) of perinatal mortality for boys was 1.31 (95 per cent confidence interval [CI] 0.98,1.78) and 1.57 (95 per cent CI 0.89, 2.78) in the Finnish 1966 and 1985–86 cohorts, respectively, and 0.82 (95 per cent CI 0.55,1.20) in the Chinese cohort. The corresponding figure for stillbirths in the Chinese was 0.57 (95 per cent CI 0.33, 0.98), which could explain the total excess of female deaths during the perinatal period. Our results suggest that the role of different social and cultural environments on the existing sex differentials in perinatal mortality between the countries needs further evaluation.     

Preface: Genetics and the human encounter with alcohol

Abstract

In this paper, we calculate a base line of statistical data on the frequency of sexual activity at various ages of Taiwanese women. A cross‐sectional study using questionnaires administered during personal interviews was conducted on more than seventeen thousand women who attended family planning clinics in the Taipei metropolitan area in 1991 and 1992. Of the women surveyed, 2.8 per cent were sexually inactive in the previous month, 83.67 per cent had intercourse one to nine times in the previous month, and 13.56 per cent had intercourse ten times or more. The mean frequency of sexual activity was 6.8 times a month. Age‐specific mean coital frequencies for the age groups of less than 25 years, of 25–34 years, and of 35–44 years were 10.3, 7.3, and 6.6 times per month, respectively. Increased sexual frequency was associated with the following factors: young age, unmarried, lower educational level, fewer years of marriage and being on the pill. When logistic regression was used to control for confounding variables, we found that a woman's age is the most significant factor in predicting her sexual frequency.     

Parallel cousin marriages in Madras,Tamil Nadu: New trends in Dravidian kinship

Abstract

The frequency distribution of various consanguineous marriages was studied in the city of Madras, Tamil Nadu, South India. Parallel first cousin marriages (PFC) were found to occur in appreciable frequencies in all caste groups of Hindus. While it has been generally believed that PFC marriages among Hindus are mere exceptions and are usually not tolerated, our data show that they can no longer be treated as exceptions. The high frequency (27 per cent) of PFC marriages in some Hindu communities necessitates in‐depth studies to elucidate the forces at work which go against the very fundamentals of Dravidian kinship.     

Determinants of fertility decline in China, 1981: Analysis of intermediate variables

Abstract

This study examines the proximate determinants of fertility in China by making use of the data collected by the One‐per‐Thousand Sample Fertility Survey of 1982. The results indicate that the most important inhibitor of potential fertility is deliberate control. Its contribution to fertility change has been far greater than all other proximate determinants. The marital structure of the population is also an important factor, while lactational infecundability and induced abortion are relatively unimportant. Comparative results by using data from the In‐depth Fertility Survey conducted in Shanghai Municipality, Hebei and Shaanxi Provinces in April 1985 agree well in the ranking of the four intermediate factors. The findings point to successful family planning program and government population policies, which propelled the fertility transition to a substantial degree. Further research needs and policy implications of the results of the study are discussed.     

Inbreeding

Abstract

Data on inbreeding in several contemporary human populations are compared, showing the highest local rates of inbreeding to be in Brazil, Japan, India, and Israel. American populations are noteworthy for their extremely low inbreeding rates, with the mean frequency of first cousin marriages in the United States probably lower than 0.1 per cent. Some localities in Puerto Rico and Sweden show inbreeding levels half‐way between the extremes found in Brazil and Japan and in the United States. For European countries, Denmark, France, Italy, and North Ireland have a mean frequency of first cousin marriages of less than 1 per cent, while England, Wales, Germany, and Holland have a frequency probably lower than 0.5 per cent. The frequency of first cousin marriages in Portugal may lie between 1 and 2 per cent.     

A note on the reduction of a risk of death

Abstract

Methods for assessing the gain of life expectancy by reducing the risks of death are examined. Depending on the method used, overestimation and underestimation of life expectancy may occur. Although the gain in life expectancy is not a linear function of the per cent reduction in mortality, a linear approximation may be used when the mortality rate is low. When the mortality rate is high, linear approximations tend to overestimate the years gained. A method using the parameter H⁽ⁱ⁾ developed by Keyfitz (1977) is adequate for low mortality rates such as with neoplasms. However, when mortality rates are high, as they are for cardiovascular‐renal diseases (CVD), Keyfitz's method tends to underestimate the gain in life expectancy. For CVD, Keyfitz's estimation is adequate below the 20 per cent reduction range. The magnitude of overestimation and underestimation are numerically evaluated based on the 1964 United States male mortality statistics.     

Fetal loss and contraceptive acceptance among the Bhopal gas victims

Abstract

The rates of fetal loss and family planning acceptance among Bhopal gas victims from 1984 to 1989 were compared to those of a control group. In all, 136 eligible women in the affected area and 139 women in the control area were interviewed. Care was taken to ensure that these women had conceived at least once during the previous five years. The fetal loss rate among the gas‐affected women was abnormally high (26.3 per cent) compared to that of women in the control area (7.8 per cent). Family planning acceptance in both areas was similar, with most women using permanent methods. In the case of temporary methods, the percentage of use was higher in the gas‐affected area.