Adoption of fertility limitation in an American frontier population: An analysis and simulation of socio‐religious subgroups

Abstract

This paper investigates a late nineteenth‐century fertility transition in a predominantly Mormon population of the western United States. A unique set of longitudinal data composed of 31,500 computerized family genealogies is drawn upon to examine a number of problems identified in reappraisals of fertility transition research (Caldwell, 1981; Freedman, 1979). Four subcohorts, differentiated by religious commitment and exposure to urban influences, are examined over the course of the transition. The study presents traditional analyses of subcohort CEB levels, period MTFR's, and m values (Coale and Trussell, 1974) and focuses on a macrosimulation of the fertility transition within the population (Bongaarts, 1976). Despite wide subcohort variation in cross‐sectional levels of fertility over time, simulation results suggest a similar absolute longitudinal decline in fertility levels, parity at which contraception was initiated, and maximum birth parities for all four subcohorts. The implications of these results for future analyses and the desirability of individual level data are discussed.     

Age‐Related Differences in the Lifestyle Regularity of Seniors Experiencing Bereavement,Care‐Giving,Insomnia, and Advancement Into Old‐Old Age

Compared to younger adults, seniors (≥60 yrs) often adopt a highly regular lifestyle, perhaps as an adaptive response to age‐related changes in their sleep and circadian rhythms. At baseline, diary measures of lifestyle regularity (SRM‐5) were obtained from 104 seniors of three separate groups. Thirty‐three subjects were challenged by spousal bereavement or the need to care for a spouse at home with dementia (Challenged); 33 were suffering from formally diagnosed (DSM‐IV) insomnia (Insomnia); and 38 were healthy, well‐functioning older seniors in the second half of their eighth decade of life or later (Healthy Older). The objective of this study was to determine whether lifestyle regularity increased as a function of age within each of these three senior groups. Overall, age was significantly correlated with SRM‐5 (r=0.41, p<0.001), with the SRM score increasing by 0.67 units/decade. The same was true for the Challenged and Insomnia groups, which also showed a significant correlation between SRM and age (Challenged: r=0.48, p<0.01; Insomnia: r=0.36, p<0.05), though with a slightly faster rate of SRM increase in the Challenged (0.95 units/decade) than Insomnia (0.55 units/decade) group. Perhaps there was no correlation between age and SRM (r=0.07, n.s.) in the Healthy Older group due to the small age range, although this group did have a higher overall SRM score than the other two groups (p<0.01). The study thus confirmed that the previously observed increase in lifestyle regularity over the adult lifespan persists into later life. This may represent an adaptive behavioral response that might be used in future therapeutic approaches.     

Farm background,socioeconomic status,and fertility: The two‐generation hypothesis

Abstract

This paper reports on an examination of whether the effects of farm background on socioeconomic differentials in fertility are diminished among nonfarm couples. The data are for a sample of white ever‐married women belonging to the 1901–1910 birth cohorts. The research provides another test of the two‐generation‐urbanite hypothesis first advanced by Goldberg. Unlike a number of other studies, the findings do not support the hypothesis. Reasons for the lack of support are discussed, and methodological weaknesses of previous studies are identified.     

Conditional Grandmother Effects on Age at Marriage, Age at First Birth, and Completed Fertility of Daughters and Daughters-in-law in Historical Krummh?rn

Based on historical data pertaining to the Krummh?rn population (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Germany), we compared reproductive histories of mothers according to whether the maternal grandmother (MGM) or the paternal grandmother (PGM) or neither of them was resident in the parents' parish at the time of the mother's first birth. In contrast to effects of PGMs, we discovered conditional differences in the MGM's effects between landless people and wealthier, commercial farmers. Our data indicate that the presence of the MGM only lowers the woman's age at marriage (AAM) and her age at the birth of her first child (AFB) in the case of landless families. However, among commercial farmers, who can generally be characterized by a lower AAM and AFB, we found opposite tendencies for the MGM's effect leading to a relatively small delay in AAM and AFB. Moreover, we also analyzed differences in the completed fertility (i.e., children ever born: CEB). Results indicate that landless families in general do have fewer CEB compared with commercial farmers except for those families in which the MGM has been present. Emphasizing that the adaptiveness of investment decisions should depend on the interaction of genetic, lineage-specific (intrinsic) and ecologically imposed (extrinsic) constraints, we conclude that kin strategies consequently address different fitness components under different conditions.     

Age‐Related Differences in Daily Attention Patterns in Preschool,Kindergarten, First‐Grade,and Fifth‐Grade Pupils

The purpose of this study was to examine age‐related differences in the daily attention patterns of preschool, kindergarten, first‐grade, and fifth‐grade pupils by means of a cross‐sectional sample of 4–11‐year‐old French students. The importance of this study comes from the need to understand attention and apply the information it provides in educational settings. The first study conducted in a school setting with three age groups (4–5‐, 6–7‐, and 10–11‐year‐olds) demonstrated a rapid rhythmicity (60 minute period) for preschoolers (4–5 years old), with higher performance at the beginning of a teaching session. This pattern evolved until the fifth grade (10–11‐year‐olds), after which the temporal variation in attention was comparable to that of working adults, with fluctuations occurring on a half‐day basis. The children's scores on crossing‐out tests rose during the morning, declined in the early afternoon, and then rose again later during the afternoon. The second study enhanced our understanding of the change of the rhythm in attention of 4–7‐year‐old pupils. The rapid daily rhythmicity, linked to a session effect, seems to gradually disappear as children move from preschool 2 to kindergarten (4–5‐ to 5–6‐year‐olds) and then on to first grade (6–7‐year‐olds), where the daily attention patterns are closer to the standard pattern found by chronopsychology studies. The evolving patterns obtained from group means were confirmed by analysis of individual patterns. Exploratory statistical analysis of the data provided greater detail on the observed interindividual patterns, indicating that within each school grade, the attention patterns of some children are similar to the standard pattern while the attention patterns of others are more atypical. Deviations were mainly found in the 5–6‐year‐old age range (kindergarteners). The greatest ‘mixture’ of patterns was observed in the kindergartners (5–6‐year‐olds). Age plays a role not only in modifying daily changes but also in the distribution of interindividual differences in daily fluctuations, which occur most when children are of kindergarten age (5–6 years of age).     

Shared interests or sexual conflict? Spousal age gap,women's wellbeing and fertility in rural Tanzania

The marriage of older men to younger women is common across cultures. On one hand, husband-older marriage may serve the interests of both sexes, a conclusion broadly consistent with reported gender differences in mate preferences. On the other hand, men alone may benefit from such marriages at a cost to women if seniority enables men to exert dominance in conflicts of interest. Indeed, in public health large spousal age gaps are generally deemed “pathological”, both as a cause and consequence of gender inequalities harmful to women. We investigate these alternative models of spousal age gap using data from a cross-sectional survey of women in Mwanza, northwestern Tanzania (n = 993). Consistent with the notion that spousal age gaps are a product of sexual conflict, women typically married with a larger age gap than stated ideals. However, adjusting for potential confounds, spousal age gap was not associated with fertility or the risk of divorce. Furthermore, women's mental health and autonomy in household decision-making was higher in husband-older marriages compared to rare cases of same-age or wife-older marriage. Beyond this comparison, the magnitude of spousal age gaps was unrelated to either measure of women's wellbeing among the overwhelming majority of marriages where the husband was older. Together these findings suggest husband-older marriage does not influence marital stability, relatively large spousal age gaps are neither especially costly nor beneficial to women, and that alternative sociodemographic factors are more important in driving variation in women's wellbeing and reproductive success in this context. Our results support neither a model of mutual benefits, nor a pathological conceptualization of spousal age gaps. We conclude by both encouraging evolutionary human scientists to engage more fully with models of sexual conflict in future studies of marriage and mating, and suggesting that public health scholars consider more neutral interpretations of spousal age differences.     

The society as an ultimate value and the socio‐cosmic configuration*

In modern ideology the individual is felt to be the ultimate value. This feature is documented in two of its long‐lasting developments which lend progressively to disregard society as a coherent whole. First the quest for freedom as stated according to the Human Rights perspective opened by the Enlightenment. Second the Middle Ages’ tendency to relegate society to the “mystical body” of Christ and of king.

Holistic ideologies, in contrast to modern ideology, are summarized in their general socio‐cosmic structure, which shows society as the ultimate value not separated from nature. Anthropology is built upon this contrast between individualistic ideology and the holistic one.     

Gestational Age at Birth and ‘Body-Mind’ Health at 5 Years of Age: A Population Based Cohort Study

Numerous studies have identified the effects of prematurity on the neonate’s physical health, however few studies have explored the effects of prematurity on both the physical and mental health of the child as they develop. Secondary analysis of data from the Millennium Cohort Study, a longitudinal study of infants (n = 18 818, born 2000–2002 in the United Kingdom) was performed. Effects of gestational age at birth on health outcomes at 5 years were measured using parental rating of their children’s general health and severity of behavior problems. The association between parent’s general health ratings and behavior problem ratings was low: 86% of those reporting serious behavior problems (5% of the sample, n = 764) rated their child as being in excellent, very good, or good health. Still, a gradient of increasing risk of poorer outcome with decreasing gestational age was observed for a composite health measure (poor/fair health and/or serious behavior problems), suggesting an association with prematurity for this composite assessment of health status. The greatest contribution to the childhood composite health measure at 5 years was for children born at 32–36 weeks gestation: population attributable fractions for having poor outcomes was 3.4% (Bonferroni-adjusted 95% confidence interval 1.1%–6.2%), compared to 1% (0.2–2.3) for birth at less than 32 weeks. Results suggest that preterm children, by school entry, are not only at high risk of physical health problems, but also of behavioral health problems. The recognition of, and response to comprehensive health and well-being outcomes related to prematurity are important in order to correctly plan and deliver adequate paediatric health services and policies.     

Fatigue and Mood Correlates of Sleep Length in Three Age‐Social Groups: School Children,Students, and Employees

The aim of the study was to trace the consequences of insufficient sleep, in terms of chronic sleep reduction rather than acute sleep deprivation, on fatigue, mood, cognitive performance self‐estimations, and daytime sleepiness in different age‐social groups. The age group of the subjects reflects their social situation and their working time organization: adolescents (n=191) obeyed the strict school schedules with starting times often before 08:00 h; university students (n=115) had more flexible timetables; young employees (n=126) were engaged in regular morning schedules or irregular daytime hours or day and night shifts. A questionnaire study determined the declared need of sleep, self‐reported sleep length, chronic fatigue (using a scale comprised of eight fatigue symptoms and four mood and three cognitive items), and daytime sleepiness (Epworth Sleepiness Scale). The declared need for sleep decreased in subsequent age groups from 9 h 23 min in school children to 8 h 22 min in university students and to 7 h 37 min in young employees. Consequently, the discrepancy between preferred and real sleep length (sleep deficit) was the largest in adolescents: 106 min. Females showed a greater need of sleep than males (p=.025) and significantly more fatigue, mood, and cognitive problems; they also exhibited higher level of daytime sleepiness (p<.000). The sleep index (reported sleep length related to requirements) correlated significantly with all health issues in women (p<.000), while only with fatigue symptoms in men (p=.013). Actual sleep length was unrelated to mood and fatigue issues; the declared individual need of sleep and sleep index showed significant associations, especially in the group of adolescents. The most frequent complaints of adolescents included tiredness on awakening (46%), nervousness, and general weakness; university students reported excessive drowsiness (50%), tension, and nervousness; employees suffered mostly from negative moods, such as tension (49%), nervousness, and irritability. The findings of the study indicate that chronic sleep loss seems to affect females more severely than males. The associations of fatigue and mood with sleep need and sleep index were more pronounced in younger subjects. Surprisingly, fatigue symptoms in school children and university students were as frequent as in hard‐working adults. Because the problem of insufficient sleep is already present in youngsters, their work time organization needs more attention.     

Cervical Screening at Age 50–64 Years and the Risk of Cervical Cancer at Age 65 Years and Older: Population-Based Case Control Study

Background

There is little consensus, and minimal evidence, regarding the age at which to stop cervical screening. We studied the association between screening at age 50–64 y and cervical cancer at age 65–83 y.

Methods and Findings

Cases were women (n = 1,341) diagnosed with cervical cancer at age 65–83 y between 1 April 2007 and 31 March 2012 in England and Wales; age-matched controls (n = 2,646) were randomly selected from population registers. Screening details from 1988 onwards were extracted from national databases. We calculated the odds ratios (OR) for different screening histories and subsequent cervical cancer. Women with adequate negative screening at age 65 y (288 cases, 1,395 controls) were at lowest risk of cervical cancer (20-y risk: 8 cancers per 10,000 women) compared with those (532 cases, 429 controls) not screened at age 50–64 y (20-y risk: 49 cancers per 10,000 women, with OR = 0.16, 95% CI 0.13–0.19). ORs depended on the age mix of women because of the weakening association with time since last screen: OR = 0.11, 95% CI 0.08–0.14 at 2.5 to 7.5 y since last screen; OR = 0.27, 95% CI 0.20–0.36 at 12.5 to 17.5 y since last screen. Screening at least every 5.5 y between the ages 50 and 64 y was associated with a 75% lower risk of cervical cancer between the ages 65 and 79 y (OR = 0.25, 95% CI 0.21–0.30), and the attributable risk was such that in the absence of screening, cervical cancer rates in women aged 65+ would have been 2.4 (95% CI 2.1–2.7) times higher. In women aged 80–83 y the association was weaker (OR = 0.49, 95% CI 0.28–0.83) than in those aged 65–69 y (OR = 0.12, 95% CI 0.09–0.17). This study was limited by an absence of data on confounding factors; additionally, findings based on cytology may not generalise to human papillomavirus testing.

Conclusions

Women with adequate negative screening at age 50–64 y had one-sixth of the risk of cervical cancer at age 65–83 y compared with women who were not screened. Stopping screening between ages 60 and 69 y in women with adequate negative screening seems sensible, but further screening may be justifiable as life expectancy increases. Please see later in the article for the Editors'' Summary     

Synthesis and Antiviral Properties of Arabino and Ribonucleosides of 1,3‐Dideazaadenine, 4‐Nitro‐1, 3‐dideazaadenine and Diketopiperazine

Different arabinosides and ribosides, viz. Ara‐DDA or 9(1‐β‐d‐arabinofuranosyl) 1,3‐dideazaadenine (6), Ara‐NDDP or 9(1‐β‐d‐arabinofuranosyl) 4‐nitro‐1,3‐dideazapurine (7), Ara‐DKP or 1(1‐β‐d‐arabinofuranosyl) diketopiperazine (8), Ribo‐DDA or 9(1‐β‐d‐ribofuranosyl) 1,3‐dideazaadenine (9) and Ribo‐NDDP or 9(1‐β‐d‐ribofuranosyl) 4‐nitro‐1,3‐dideazapurine (10) have been synthesized as probable antiviral agents. The arabinosides have been synthesized using the catalyst TDA‐1 that causes stereospecific formation of β‐nucleosides while a one‐pot synthesis procedure was adopted for the synthesis of the ribonucleosides where β‐anomers were obtained in higher yields. All the five nucleoside analogs have been screened for antiviral property against HIV‐1 (III_B), HSV‐1 and 2, parainfluenza‐3, reovirus‐1 and many others. It was observed that arabinosides had greater inhibitory action than ribosides. The compound 7 or Ara‐NDDP has shown maximum inhibition of HIV‐1 replication than the rest of the molecules with an IC₅₀ of 79.4 µg/mL.     

Non‐verbal interaction of Anglo‐Canadian,Jewish‐Canadian,and French‐Canadian physicians with their young,middle‐aged,and elderly patients

This study investigates the role that non‐verbal communication plays in establishing and maintaining rapport among physicians and their young, middle‐aged, and elderly patients.

Eleven physicians with a variety of patients were studied in the project in Montreal. Five physicians were Anglo‐Canadian, three were respectively Jewish‐Canadian and French‐Canadian. Three additional physicians were part of a pilot project.

Patient‐doctor interviews were videotaped by means of a stationary camera fitted with a wide‐angle lens placed in the doctors’ offices. Physical examinations were not videotaped. After each session, patients filled out a questionnaire elucidating the success of the interview.     

Rooster spermatozoan motility,forward progression,and fertility after storage at 25, 5, or −196 °C in various extenders

Rooster spermatozoa were stored at 25, 5, or ?196 °C in either TC199, a pyruvate-lactate mouse ova culture medium, or as undiluted semen. There was a linear decrease in percent of motile sperm during storage at 25 or 5 °C in all cases, and a curvilinear decrease with increasing storage times at ?196 °C. Percent of motile sperm present after increasing storage time suggested pyruvate-lactate is a better extender than TC199 at the three storage temperatures studied. Pullets inseminated with 1 × 10⁸ motile sperm using fresh sperm diluted in TC199 or pyruvate-lactate, or stored 24 hr at 5 or ?196 °C produced 68.7, 74.1, 20.6, and 10.8% fertile eggs, respectively. The differences in fertility between controls or between samples stored at 5 and ?196 °C were not significant. However, fertility from sperm stored at 5 and ?196 °C was significantly lower (p < .05) than both control groups. Thus, it can be concluded that TC199 or pyruvate-lactate may be used to dilute fresh rooster semen collections prior to insemination. In contrast, fertility of rooster sperm is not satisfactorily maintained after 5 or ?196 °C storage for 24 hr in a pyruvate-lactate extender.     

Age‐related Changes in the Circadian and Homeostatic Regulation of Human Sleep

The reduction of electroencephalographic (EEG) slow‐wave activity (SWA) (EEG power density between 0.75–4.5 Hz) and spindle frequency activity, together with an increase in involuntary awakenings during sleep, represent the hallmarks of human sleep alterations with age. It has been assumed that this decrease in non‐rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep consolidation reflects an age‐related attenuation of the sleep homeostatic drive. To test this hypothesis, we measured sleep EEG characteristics (i.e., SWA, sleep spindles) in healthy older volunteers in response to high (sleep deprivation protocol) and low sleep pressure (nap protocol) conditions. Despite the fact that the older volunteers had impaired sleep consolidation and reduced SWA levels, their relative SWA response to both high and low sleep pressure conditions was similar to that of younger persons. Only in frontal brain regions did we find an age‐related diminished SWA response to high sleep pressure. On the other hand, we have clear evidence that the circadian regulation of sleep during the 40 h nap protocol was changed such that the circadian arousal signal in the evening was weaker in the older study participants. More sleep occurred during the wake maintenance zone, and subjective sleepiness ratings in the late afternoon and evening were higher than in younger participants. In addition, we found a diminished melatonin secretion and a reduced circadian modulation of REM sleep and spindle frequency—the latter was phase‐advanced relative to the circadian melatonin profile. Therefore, we favor the hypothesis that age‐related changes in sleep are due to weaker circadian regulation of sleep and wakefulness. Our data suggest that manipulations of the circadian timing system, rather than the sleep homeostat, may offer a potential strategy to alleviate age‐related decrements in sleep and daytime alertness levels.     

Power-frequency magnetic fields at 50 Hz do not affect fertility and development in rats and mice

In the present study, the effects of power-frequency magnetic fields (PF-MF) on fertility and development were investigated in rats and mice. Adult Sprague-Dawley rats and C57BL/6J mice were divided into four groups: a sham exposure group and 30-µT, 100-µT and 500-µT PF-MF exposure groups. The rats were exposed for 24 weeks, and the exposure time for mice ranged from 18 d to 12 weeks, dependent on the different investigated end points. The rats and mice were exposed for 20 h/d. Plasma hormone levels in rats and mice were analyzed. Furthermore, pregnancy rates and implanted embryos were recorded in pregnant mice. Finally, the neonatal growth of mice was evaluated. The results showed that none of the three intensities affected the body weight and paired ovary weight in female rats. Meanwhile, none of the three intensities affected the body weight, weights of paired testes, weights of paired epididymis and sperm count in male rats. Similarly, no significant differences were found in plasma sex hormone levels between the different PF-MF exposure groups and the sham exposure group. In addition, the pregnancy rates and implanted embryos were not significantly different between the four groups. Moreover, PF-MF exposures had no effects on either the number of fetuses in pregnant mice or the growth and development of neonatal mice.     

Activation and differentiation of sexual behavior and translocation of hypothalamic estrogen receptors in rats by 6α-fluorotestosterone

Androgens classified as nonaromatizable in placental assay systems typically do not mimic testosterone's effects on sexual behavior in rats. 6α-Fluorotestosterone is an exception. To pursue this challenge to the aromatization hypothesis, we compared several behavioral and neuroendocrine effects of 6α-fluorotestosterone propionate (6α-fluoro-TP) with those of testosterone propionate (TP). Even at a very low dose (6.25 μg/100 g/day), 6α-fluoro-TP maintained most aspects of male sexual behavior as well as TP. It was slightly less potent than TP for inhibiting gonadotropin secretion (testicular development) in prepubertal males. Given neonatally, these androgens were equally likely to induce anovulatory sterility. 6α-Fluoro-TP defeminized sexual development in females and neonatally castrated males half as effectively as TP based on lordosis:mount ratios following estrogen and progesterone therapy in adulthood. Neither androgen masculinized sexual behavior. The behavioral effects of 6α-fluoro-TP correspond to its ability to inhibit cell nuclear accumulation of 17β-[³H]estradiol in the hypothalamuspreoptic area. When injected on a schedule like that used to activate male sexual behavior, the two androgens reduced estrogen uptake equally. When injected into adult castrates on a schedule like that used to defeminize sexual development, 6α-fluoro-TP blocked estrogen uptake half as well as TP. 6α-Fluorotestosterone did not alter estrogen uptake when injected simultaneously with 17β-[³H]estradiol. These data suggest that 6α-fluorotestosterone activates male behavior and defeminizes development because it translocates estrogen receptors in the brain, probably via an aromatized metabolite. Hence androgen aromatizability in the placenta may not reflect neural metabolism and cannot predict the behavioral or neuroendocrine effects of androgens.