Legalization of consensual unions in Latin America

Abstract

In Latin America conjugal unions take two forms, legal marriages and consensual unions. The distinction between these two types of unions is complicated by the fact that cohabiting couples often legalize their relationship through civil or religious marriage. This analysis examines legalization in rural areas of Colombia, Mexico, Peru, and Costa Rica based on data from the PECFAL rural survey (1969). The results indicate that legalization is frequent in rural Latin America, especially among women who enter consensual unions after age 17 and who have some education. Surprisingly, there is little increase in the frequency of legalization for church‐attending Catholics or for women who have a pregnancy or birth within a consensual union. Consensual unions appear to serve a useful function as trial marriages since legalized unions are less likely to end in separation than are legal marriages without premarital cohabitation.     

Legalization of Eco-balances in Germany

The development and use of, as well as scientific discussions on, eco-balances and in particular life cycle assessment has largely occurred without involving experts on environmental law. However, in the light of recent proposals to ‘legalize’ eco-balances, i.e. formally introducing them into environmental law, the legal implications of eco-balancing must be addressed in the future. The formal introduction, especially of LCA, cannot be decided independent of the general economic and environmental policy implications of material flow management, and it raises major questions of policy and constitutional law. An important question of principle is whether eco-balances should be prescribed or only a legal framework set forth for voluntary use. In view of the unfinished methodological development of LCA, any formal introduction raises the constitutional problem of conformity with the requirements of legal certainty. References to the ‘principles of good eco-balancing’ are problematic, and an introduction on an experimental basis would have to be confined to cases where the legal consequences of grossly divergent interpretations of this term are tolerable to affected firms. Where eco-balances are prescribed as a method of preparing governmental or administrative decisions, one must determine whether and to what extent they are binding on the decision-maker, and develop proper mechanisms of participation, transparency and critical review.     

Ethnicity and practice in Malaysian unions

In mainland Malaysia, the tri‐ethnic schema of Malay‐Chinese‐Indian continues to have a decisive influence on macro‐level policy and micro‐level behaviour. However, other means of organizing experience are not entirely precluded. This article features the profiles of three Malaysian trade union leaders who must, in effect, feed the concept of class through an ethnic grid in order to attract and retain union members. The lives of these unionists exemplify how ethnicity and class in Malaysia, as elsewhere, are constructive processes that demand the active participation of individuals even as that participation is subject to the constraints of hegemony. However, there is certainly sufficient play in the Malaysian system to suggest that current ethnic and class concepts ‐ and, indeed, hegemony itself ‐ have great potential for change.     

Studies on graft unions

Summary De novo formation of cytoplasmic cell connections are studied at the graft interface of 5 day old in vitro heterografts ofVicia faba onHelianthus annuus. Continuous and half plasmodesmata, both branched and unbranched, are described at various stages of development in non-division walls between unlike and like dedifferentiated callus cells. In apical portions of protruding callus cells and in the contact zone between opposing cells extremely thin wall parts with a striking ER/plasmalemma contact are observed. During subsequent thickening of the modified wall parts cytoplasmic strands enclosing constricted ER cisternae are entrapped within the newly deposited wall material. These cytoplasmic strands represent half plasmodesmata which—in case of fusion with corresponding structures of adjoining cells across the loosened wall matrix — form continuous cell connections. Golgi vesicles secreting wall material are involved in the process of forming half and continuous plasmodesmata, thus following the same mechanism of plasmodesmata development as described for isolated protoplasts in cell cultures. The findings suggest the existence of a unifying mechanism of secondary formation of plasmodesmata showing far-reaching similarities with the establishment of primary cell connections.     

Studies on graft unions

Summary The occurrence of plasmodesmata in the graft interfaces of two heteroplastic grafts (Impatiens walleriana onImpatiens olivieri andHelianthus annum onVicia faba) has been studied. For both systems two types of intercellular strand are described: 1. Continuous plasmodesmata interconnecting the cells of stock and scion and 2. half plasmodesmata traversing the wall part of one partner cell without connection to the abutting cell. Single strands or branched forms occur in both types of plasmodesma. In the case of half plasmodesmata, branchings with extended median nodules predominate. The distribution of half and continuous plasmodesmata varies with the different areas of a graft interface: in the region of bridging vascular tissues most cell connections are continuous. In areas where cortex or pith-derived callus cells and those of misaligned tissues (cortex/vascular tissue; cortex/pith; pith/vascular tissue) match, discontinuous strands predominate.Branched half plasmodesmata also occur in presumably fused walls between related callus cells; they are typical structures secondarily formed in non-division walls.The results are discussed with regard to compatibility/incompatibility phenomena in heterografts and the development and function of interspecific cell bridges.     

Marital fertility in polygynous unions in Nigeria

The effect of polygyny on fertility, by age cohort, was examined in 4 regions of Nigeria through use of data from the 1981-82 Nigerian Fertility Survey. Simple tabulation of numbers of live births by maternal age and type of marriage union indicated that, with the exception of the 30-39-year age group, fertility in polygynous unions tends to be higher than that in monogamous marriages. Overall, such tabulations reveal an average of 3.90 births among polygynous women and 3.47 births among monogamous women. However, when age-specific fertility rates were compared, except for women under 20 and over 40 years of age, rates were higher in monogamous unions (7.286 overall) than for women in polygynous households (7.200 overall). Mean completed fertility, taking into account marriage duration as well, shows a tendency for women in polygynous unions to be more fertile (with the exception of women aged 25-44 years who had been married 10-19 years). The absolute difference in fertility between the 2 types of marital unions ranged from 0.32 children in the northwest to 0.64 in the southeast. With adjustment for independent variables such as education, the absolute mean differences were reduced, from between 0.28 children in the southeast to 0.42 in the northeast, but the direction of high fertility was still in favor of women in polygynous unions. But when the covariates (e.g., age at marriage) were taken into account as well as the independent variables, there was a dramatic reduction in the mean difference between the fertility of these 2 groups of women. These findings suggest that some changes in reproductive behavior are taking place in Nigeria that are restricting the fertility of women in polygynous unions. These changes are hypothesized to reflect the spread of formal education in Nigeria, with the expectation that women will contribute to the costs involved in educating their children.     

Reisen in Mexico

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Neurocysticercosis in Mexico

Cysticercosis is caused by the establishment of Taenia solium larvae (cysticerci), mainly in the central nervous system (CNS) and skeletal muscle of humans and pigs, after ingestion of eggs shed in human faeces by the adult tapeworm (see centrepage diagram). Human neurocysticercosis - often a life-threatening disease - is increasingly recognized as a public health problem, especially in developing countries. Clinical incidence of neurocysticercosis can reach 7% in Mexico and 18% in the Ekari population of New Guinea, while prevalence in autopsies ranges from 0.4% to 3.6% in several countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa. Many cases have also been recently reported in the USA, usually in immigrants. In this review, Ana Flisser focuses on the problems of cysticercosis in Mexico, where the disease is now recognized as a priority both in public health and economic terms. Recognition of the problem has been greatly aided in recent years by new developments in diagnosis - especially computed tomography (CT) to diagnose early stages of neurocysticercosis - and by improved drug treatment.