Reservation and non‐reservation American Indian mortality in 1970 and 1978

Abstract

Mortality rates by age and sex of American Indians living in reservation and non‐reservation counties were compared for 1970 and 1978. An apparent overcount in the 1980 census enumeration of American Indians curtails rigorous comparisons, but broad differences can be delineated. The main improvement in American Indian mortality during the decade was in age group 0–4. In 1970, non‐reservation death rates were not different from reservation rates. By the end of the decade, non‐reservation death rates had diverged downward from reservation deaths. An analysis of 1978 death rates by poverty status showed that non‐reservation death rates are sensitive to county poverty level, whereas reservation death rates are not.     

American Indians with African Ancestry: Differential Fertility and the Complexities of Social Identity

Interethnic marriage represents a major trend in the demographic history of American Indians. While the majority of these unions involved Indian women and Caucasian men, a sizeable number occurred between Indians and African Americans. The children of these bicultural marriages were “mixed bloods” who in turn typically married non-Indians or other mixed bloods. Using data from the 1910 Census on American Indians in the United States and Alaska, this article explores why American Indians with African ancestry enjoyed high fertility. Differential rates of fertility among American Indians in the past were due to a number of underlying genetic, cultural, and environmental factors. By identifying these factors, the paradox of why Indian women with African heritage did so well in terms of fertility largely disappears. African admixture, however, greatly complicates Indian social identity.     

Continuing fertility transitions in a plural society: ethnic trends and differentials in Peninsular Malaysia

Fertility in Peninsular Malaysia has declined continuously from the late 1950s, reaching a total fertility rate of 3735 in 1983. All ethnic groups in Malaysia have contributed to this modern demographic transition but the rate of change has been most rapid for Chinese and Indians, Malay fertility having reached a plateau in the early 1980s. The effect of age structure, marital patterns and marital fertility (by parity) on the fertility declines for each ethnic community are analyzed. There has been a tendency, in each ethnic group, for the age distribution within the group of reproductive-age women to grow younger, reflecting the entry into the younger reproductive ages of the large birth cohorts of the 1950s and early 1960s. The effect of this on crude birth rates is hard to determine, because rising age at marriage and increasing use of contraception meant that fertility was increasingly concentrated in the more central reproductive ages. By the 1990s, the earlier declines in fertility will bring about a decline in the proportion of the total population made up of females in the main reproductive ages. After that point, further declines in fertility will be reflected in a sharper decline in the crude birth rate and hence the rate of population increase. Between 1947 and 1980, the age at marriage changed dramatically for females of all ethnic groups. The transition to higher age at marriage for Chinese was completed earlier, and since 1970 has risen by only a year. For Malays and Indians, the rise began later, proceeded faster and continued right up to 1980 when the medium ages at 1st marriage were Malays 22, Indians 23, Chinese 24 years. In 1980, Malay women on average were marrying 5 years later, and Indian women 6 years later than had their mothers' generation in 1947. The proportion never-married among Malay and Indian women aged 20-24 rose from 1/10 to 1/2 over this period; relatively greater changes are evident at ages 25-29. Other factors are the almost complete shift from parent-arranged to self-arranged marriages. Family size desired has decreased for all groups and the decline in breastfeeding has been offset by the sharp increase in the practice of contraception. Continuation of these trends would lead to replacement-level fertility for Malaysian Chinese and Indians by the year 2000. Malay fertility is likely to continue to decline but at a more moderate pace.     

Leading Causes of Death among Asian American Subgroups (2003–2011)

Background

Our current understanding of Asian American mortality patterns has been distorted by the historical aggregation of diverse Asian subgroups on death certificates, masking important differences in the leading causes of death across subgroups. In this analysis, we aim to fill an important knowledge gap in Asian American health by reporting leading causes of mortality by disaggregated Asian American subgroups.

Methods and Findings

We examined national mortality records for the six largest Asian subgroups (Asian Indian, Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese) and non-Hispanic Whites (NHWs) from 2003-2011, and ranked the leading causes of death. We calculated all-cause and cause-specific age-adjusted rates, temporal trends with annual percent changes, and rate ratios by race/ethnicity and sex. Rankings revealed that as an aggregated group, cancer was the leading cause of death for Asian Americans. When disaggregated, there was notable heterogeneity. Among women, cancer was the leading cause of death for every group except Asian Indians. In men, cancer was the leading cause of death among Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese men, while heart disease was the leading cause of death among Asian Indians, Filipino and Japanese men. The proportion of death due to heart disease for Asian Indian males was nearly double that of cancer (31% vs. 18%). Temporal trends showed increased mortality of cancer and diabetes in Asian Indians and Vietnamese; increased stroke mortality in Asian Indians; increased suicide mortality in Koreans; and increased mortality from Alzheimer’s disease for all racial/ethnic groups from 2003-2011. All-cause rate ratios revealed that overall mortality is lower in Asian Americans compared to NHWs.

Conclusions

Our findings show heterogeneity in the leading causes of death among Asian American subgroups. Additional research should focus on culturally competent and cost-effective approaches to prevent and treat specific diseases among these growing diverse populations.     

Mortality differentials in Canada, 1951–1971: French,British, and Indians

Mortality differentials reflect in part the social and economic conditions of groups in society. In this paper, the relationship between ethnic origin and mortality is investigated from the point of view of convergence and minority group status hypotheses. Multivariate methods are used to study differences among the French, the British and Native Indian (includes Metis and Eskimos) populations of Canada over three census periods from 1951 to 1971. A significant downward trend in the death rates of all three subpopulations is noted, but substantial differences persist, as the pace of mortality decline over time varies across the three ethnic groups. In the twenty-year interval between 1951 and 1971, Native Indians have experienced spectacular reductions in their overall death rates, but in comparative terms, their mortality levels still exceed those of the French (who show intermediate levels) and the British ethnic groups. The multivariate analysis provides strong support for the minority status effect, which is taken to suggest that the roots of inequalities in survival probabilities are partly a result of social and economic disparities. The convergence thesis received some support: over time the general pattern is one of declining mortality with some narrowing of the differences. An examination of four broad causes of death (neoplasms, cardiovascular, accidents-violence, and "other") suggests that Native Indians are characteristic of populations undergoing epidemiologic and demographic transitions. Their elevated risk of accidents-violence reflects social disruption in the process of modernization. Causes of death of the French and British populations are characterized by higher risks of cancer and cardiovascular diseases, typical of advanced societies.     

Cervical cancer incidence and mortality in New Mexico's Hispanics,American Indians,and non-Hispanic whites.

High rates of cervical cancer were reported in New Mexico in the early 1970s, with especially high rates for minority women. We examined data collected from 1970 to 1987 for invasive cervical cancer and cervical carcinoma in situ for New Mexico''s Hispanic, American Indian, and non-Hispanic white women to determine whether changes had occurred in cervical cancer rates since earlier reports. To further characterize the epidemiology of cervical cancer in New Mexico, we reviewed state vital statistics for cervical cancer deaths occurring between 1958 and 1987. From 1970 to 1987, the incidence for invasive cervical cancer among Hispanic (18.9 per 100,000 person-years) and American Indian women (22.0 per 100,000 person-years) was about double that for non-Hispanic white women (10.3 per 100,000). The incidence in each ethnic group decreased over time for both invasive cancer and carcinoma in situ when the data were examined by 2 time periods (1970 to 1978 and 1979 to 1987). These decreases were most dramatic for invasive cervical cancer. Cervical cancer-related death rates for Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites also decreased from 1958 to 1987. Although our data reflect declines in cervical cancer rates during the study period, further rate decreases, especially for minority women, remain an important public health goal in New Mexico.     

Indian Boarding Schools And Ethnic Identity: An Example From The Southern Plains Tribes Of Oklahoma

Abstract

In the late 1800s, boarding schools sponsored by the United States government were created for the education and socialization of American Indian youth. These institutions gradually and purposefully pursued a policy of total assimilation of American Indians into the mainstream of society. The boarding schools failed in their ultimate goal to assimilate Indians. Surprisingly, however, they did attain limited acceptance among many Oklahoma Indians. The segregationist policies of the boarding schools are interpreted as having inadvertently perpetuated the formation of an Indian identity. Frequent visiting by family, segregation of Indian from non-Indian students, and symbolic association of the boarding schools with federal government obligations are identified as factors which contributed to the maintenance of this identity.     

Differentials in fertility among black doctorates

Abstract

The 1978 Contraceptive Prevalence Survey for Guatemala provides an opportunity to examine fertility levels and a number of determinants of fertility for three broad segments of the country: the Department of Guatemala and, in the remainder of the country, the Ladino and Indian populations. While Ladinos had a much higher rate of contraceptive use than did Indians, the two groups had similar birth rates. The lack of difference in fertility appears to be due to the pattern of prolonged breastfeeding among Indians and perhaps to differences in the rate of conception due to nutrition, coital frequency, or other factors.     

Causes of low utilization of amniocentesis by women of advanced maternal age

Abstract

The objectives of this study were to determine current usage of amniocentesis by women of advanced maternal age in a southwestern Ohio county and to determine potential usage levels by surveying women not utilizing the procedure to understand their reasons. For women age 35 and older giving birth in Hamilton County, Ohio, the estimated percentage using amniocentesis was 3.9 in 1978, 7.6 in 1979, and 13.3 in 1980. Approximately comparable statewide utilization rates were 7.0, 11.5, and 17.2 respectively. A telephone survey during the summer of 1980 of 81 Hamilton County women age 35 and older recently giving birth to a normal baby found four main reasons why they did not utilize amniocentesis: (1) they did not feel at an increased risk (29.6 per cent); (2) they had never heard of the test (24.7 per cent); (3) they were opposed to abortion (21.0 per cent); and (4) no one suggested they have the test done (19.8 per cent). Their physicians reported that 81 per cent of these women had received prenatal counseling. Thus, of those counseled, over two‐thirds apparently missed at least one essential message of the counseling they were presumably provided. These findings, coupled with 47.7 per cent of women who knew about amniocentesis saying they would most likely use it if they became pregnant again and their physician recommended it, indicate that utilization of prenatal diagnosis by at least 50 per cent of women age 35 and older is likely with greater public education and greater support of the procedure by obstetricians.     

Injury mortality in New Mexico's American Indians,Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites, 1958 to 1982.

New Mexico has extraordinarily high injury mortality rates. To better characterize the injury problem in New Mexico, we calculated proportionate injury mortality and age-adjusted and age-specific injury mortality rates for the state''s 3 major ethnic groups--American Indians, Hispanics, and non-Hispanic whites. According to death certificate data collected from 1958 to 1982 and US population census figures, age-adjusted mortality rates for total external causes varied widely between the sexes and among the ethnic groups. Males in each ethnic group consistently had higher average annual age-adjusted external mortality rates than females. Injury mortality rates for American Indians of both sexes were 2 to 3 times higher than those for the other New Mexico ethnic groups. Motor vehicle crashes were the leading cause of death from injury for all 3 groups. Homicide accounted for twice the proportion of injury death in Hispanic compared with non-Hispanic white males (12.5% and 6.1%, respectively), while the proportion of males dying of suicide was highest in non-Hispanic whites. Deaths from excessive cold and exposure were leading causes of injury mortality for American Indians, but these causes were not among the leading causes of injury mortality for Hispanics or non-Hispanic whites. We conclude that the minority populations in New Mexico are at high risk for injury-related death and that the major causes of injury mortality vary substantially in the state''s predominant ethnic populations.     

Changes in the association of low birth weight with socioeconomic status in Hawaii: 1970–1990

Abstract

This study examines rates of low birth weight (LBW) in the state of Hawaii and changes in the association of LBW with socioeconomic status from 1970 to 1990. The analysis is based on aggregate data for census tracts. Rates of low birth weight were calculated for each census tract. Relative socioeconomic scores were calculated from average household income and years of education. The results show that (1) there was a decrease in the rate of low birth weight infants in Hawaii; and (2) that the correlation between socioeconomic status and low birth weight was substantially reduced, though a significant correlation remains. The paper suggests likely ceiling effects, but that the progressive public health policies and expansion of access to primary health care in Hawaii during this period played a major role in reducing the rate of low birth weight infants and in decreasing socioeconomic inequality on this important health indicator.     

Mortality rate of Japanese twins: Infant deaths of twins after birth to one year of age

Abstract

In twin individuals born in Japan in the first half of 1974, rates of infant mortality up to one year of age were computed according to sex and order of birth. The rates were 5.50 per cent for males and 3.81 per cent for females. A lower mortality rate for first‐born twins indicates a reduced viability for second‐born twins, even in MZ twins. The effect of maternal age, gestational age, and birth weight on the rates of infant mortality were also analyzed.     

The language skills of New Zealand Polynesian children: From deficiency to diversity

The American Indian and Alaskan Native population has grown rapidly since 1950 because of changes in the racial classification of persons with mixed Indian and non‐Indian descent. These changes have challenged once common expectations that the Indian population was likely to shrink over time through assimilation. However, in regions of the United States where the recent growth of the Indian population has been particularly sharp most married Indians are married to non‐Indians. Fertility rates of women who are part of intermarried couples are lower than fertility rates for Indian women in racially endogamous marriages. The majority of the children of intermarried Indians in high intermarriage regions are labelled with the race of the non‐Indian parent. Intermarriage is likely to substantially reduce the long‐run impact of changes in identification on the future growth of the Indian population. At the same time, in a few states the American Indian population remains ethnically homogenous and shows no signs of imminent amalgamation into the general American population.     

Kuru: An appraisal of five years of investigation

Abstract

Socioeconomic determinants of fertility and mortality were estimated by regression analysis for 29 low‐migration SMSA's located in the eastern part of the U. S. A low‐migration sample was chosen to maximize length of life history within the regions. Independent variables included per cent nonwhite, gross and net migration, population, density, medical care, welfare, per cent Catholic, education, income, and labor force participation. Density was measured by an index based on the census inventory of urban land. Mortality results include effects of migration on older nonwhite life expectancy, an inverse effect of density on life expectancy for older whites, specific income and educational effects on older life expectancies, different causative factors for e(50) and e(1,50), lack of influence of medical care (except for the nonwhite male), and significant infant mortality multiple correlations only for the nonwhite female. For nonwhite fertility, the inverse influences of per cent nonwhite and net migration 1960–70 were of greatest importance. White fertility showed a negative relationship with medical care and a positive one with nonwhite male e(0).     

Ethnic differences in mortality from acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease in New Mexico, 1958-1982.

To examine time trends and differences in mortality rates from acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease in New Mexico''s Hispanic, American Indian, and non-Hispanic white populations, we analyzed vital records data for 1958 through 1982. Age-adjusted mortality rates for acute rheumatic fever were low and showed no consistent temporal trends among the three ethnic groups over the study period. Age-adjusted and age-specific mortality rates for chronic rheumatic heart disease in Hispanic and non-Hispanic whites decreased over the 25-year period, although rates were higher among Hispanics than among non-Hispanics during most of the time period. In American Indians, age-adjusted mortality rates for chronic rheumatic heart disease increased between 1968 and 1977 to twice the non-Indian mortality rates during the same period. Despite this increase in mortality from chronic rheumatic heart disease among New Mexico''s American Indians from 1968 to 1977, the New Mexico data generally reflect national trends of decreasing mortality from chronic rheumatic heart disease.     

Aboriginal mortality in Canada, the United States and New Zealand

Indigenous populations in New World nations share the common experience of culture contact with outsiders and a prolonged history of prejudice and discrimination. This historical reality continues to have profound effects on their well-being, as demonstrated by their relative disadvantages in socioeconomic status on the one hand, and in their delayed demographic and epidemiological transitions on the other. In this study one aspect of aboriginals' epidemiological situation is examined: their mortality experience between the early 1980s and early 1990s. The groups studied are the Canadian Indians, the American Indians and the New Zealand Maori (data for Australian Aboriginals could not be obtained). Cause-specific death rates of these three minority groups are compared with those of their respective non-indigenous populations using multivariate log-linear competing risks models. The empirical results are consistent with the proposition that the contemporary mortality conditions of these three minorities reflect, in varying degrees, problems associated with poverty, marginalization and social disorganization. Of the three minority groups, the Canadian Indians appear to suffer more from these types of conditions, and the Maori the least.     

Some Materials On The Assimilation Of Oklahoma Indians

Abstract

This article describes, in quite general terms, the current condition of the Indians of Oklahoma, with particular attention given the Cherokee. The author views the system of allotments in severalty and the policies of the Bureau of Indian Affairs as principal factors underlying the increased rate of assimilation of the Oklahoma tribes. She deals briefly with the Native American Church, and cites this as evidence of a reaction to assimilation on the part of the Indians.     

Contemporary Migration and Culture Change on Two Dakota Reservations

Abstract

Two studies were made by the author to validate the conclusion of earlier writers that while the more acculturated Indians left the reservation, a reservoir of traditional culture-carriers remained behind.

After consideration of such factors as use of language, expressed white values, degree of Indian blood, and degree of education it is concluded that the acculturation of migrants is greater than that of non-migrants. It was also found that the rate of migration was higher than it is usually thought to be.

The failure of migrants to influence Indian communities is said to be due to the fact that (l) migrants move greater distances and tend to cut all ties with the reservation; (2) some migrants move to new Indian environments: (3) factional disputes arise between migrants and non-migrants.

The conclusion is that migration accelerates the acculturation of the individual but is a mechanism which also keeps the Indian communities distinct and isolated from white society.     

Indian time for nature? A multi-level approach to American Indian outdoor time in everyday life

Social scientists have utilized daily time use studies as one method of understanding everyday lives. The bulk of this research, usually quantitative, identifies broad racial, ethnic and gender differences. Yet, certain groups and questions are typically excluded in daily time use research. One such group is American Indians. To address this lacuna, we look at the deeply discussed view that American Indians are closer to nature than other US ethnic groups. We use a nationally representative sample of individual daily time use (American Time Use Survey; n?=?136,960) to look at leisure time outdoors. Our results show that American Indians report greater time spent outdoors but that this is only statistically significant for those who identify as exclusively American Indian (not for American Indians that are multi- and bi-racial). This study confirms previous qualitative research that suggests American Indians have a distinct relationship with nature.     

Asymmetry in species regional dispersal ability and the neutral theory

The neutral assumption that individuals of either the same or different species share exactly the same birth, death, migration, and speciation probabilities is fundamental yet controversial to the neutral theory. Several theoretical studies have demonstrated that a slight difference in species per capita birth or death rates can have a profound consequence on species coexistence and community structure. Whether asymmetry in migration, a vital demographic parameter in the neutral model, plays an important role in community assembly still remains unknown. In this paper, we relaxed the ecological equivalence assumption of the neutral model by introducing differences into species regional dispersal ability. We investigated the effect of asymmetric dispersal on the neutral local community structure. We found that per capita asymmetric dispersal among species could reduce species richness of the local community and result in deviations of species abundance distributions from those predicted by the neutral model. But the effect was moderate compared with that of asymmetries in birth or death rates, unless very large asymmetries in dispersal were assumed. A large difference in species dispersal ability, if there is, can overwhelm the role of random drift and make local community dynamics deterministic. In this case, species with higher regional dispersal abilities tended to dominate in the local community. However, the species abundance distribution of the local community under asymmetric dispersal could be well fitted by the neutral model, but the neutral model generally underestimated the fundamental biodiversity number but overestimated the migration rate in such communities.