The Genetic and Molecular Basis of Plant Resistance to Pathogens

Plant pathogens have evolved numerous strategies to obtain nutritive materials from their host,and plants in turn have evolved the preformed physical and chemical barriers as well as sophisticated two-tiered immune system to combat pathogen attacks.Genetically, plant resistance to pathogens can be divided into qualitative and quantitative disease resistance,conditioned by major gene(s) and multiple genes with minor effects,respectively.Qualitative disease resistance has been mostly detected in plant defense against biotrophic pathogens,whereas quantitative disease resistance is involved in defense response to all plant pathogens,from biotrophs,hemibiotrophs to necrotrophs.Plant resistance is achieved through interception of pathogen-derived effectors and elicitation of defense response.In recent years,great progress has been made related to the molecular basis underlying host-pathogen interactions.In this review,we would like to provide an update on genetic and molecular aspects of plant resistance to pathogens.     

Engineering Resistance Against Viruses in Field Crops Using CRISPR- Cas9

Food security is threatened by various biotic stresses that affect the growth and production of agricultural crops. Viral diseases have become a serious concern for crop plants as they incur huge yield losses. The enhancement of host resistance against plant viruses is a priority for the effective management of plant viral diseases. However, in the present context of the climate change scenario, plant viruses are rapidly evolving, resulting in the loss of the host resistance mechanism. Advances in genome editing techniques, such as CRISPR-Cas9 [clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated 9], have been recognized as promising tools for the development of plant virus resistance. CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing tool is widely preferred due to high target specificity, simplicity, efficiency, and reproducibility. CRISPR-Cas9 based virus resistance in plants has been successfully achieved by gene targeting and cleaving the viral genome or altering the plant genome to enhance plant innate immunity. In this article, we have described the CRISPR-Cas9 system, mechanism of plant immunity against viruses and highlighted the use of the CRISPR-Cas9 system to engineer virus resistance in plants. We also discussed prospects and challenges on the use of CRISPR-Cas9-mediated plant virus resistance in crop improvement.     

Recent progress in the research of external Al detoxification in higher plants: a minireview

Aluminum (Al) is highly toxic to plant growth. The toxicity is characterized by rapid inhibition of root elongation. However, some plant species and cultivars have evolved some mechanisms for detoxifying Al both internally and externally. In this review, the recent progress made in the research of external detoxification of Al is described. Accumulating evidence has shown that organic acids play an important role in the detoxification of Al. Some plant species and cultivars respond to Al by secreting citrate, malate or oxalate from the roots. Recently, the anion channel of malate and citrate in the plasma membrane has been characterized and a gene encoding the malate channel has been cloned. The metabolism of organic acids seems to be poorly correlated with the Al-induced secretion of organic acid anions. A number of QTLs (quantitative trait loci) for Al resistance have been identified in rice, Arabidopsis, and other species. Transgenic plants with enhanced resistance to Al have also been reported, but introduction of multiple genes may be required to gain high Al resistance in future.     

Transgenic approaches to microbial disease resistance in crop plants

Recent progress in the genetic dissection of plant disease resistance signaling pathways has opened a number of new avenues towards engineering pathogen resistance in crops. Genes controlling race-specific and broad-spectrum resistance responses have been cloned, and novel induced resistance pathways have been identified in model and crop systems. Advances continue to be made in identification of antifungal proteins with effects inhibitory to either pathogen development or accumulation of associated mycotoxins.     

Antibody-Based Resistance to Plant Pathogens

Plant diseases are a major threat to the world food supply, as up to 15% of production is lost to pathogens. In the past, disease control and the generation of resistant plant lines protected against viral, bacterial or fungal pathogens, was achieved using conventional breeding based on crossings, mutant screenings and backcrossing. Many approaches in this field have failed or the resistance obtained has been rapidly broken by the pathogens. Recent advances in molecular biotechnology have made it possible to obtain and to modify genes that are useful for generating disease resistant crops. Several strategies, including expression of pathogen-derived sequences or anti-pathogenic agents, have been developed to engineer improved pathogen resistance in transgenic plants. Antibody-based resistance is a novel strategy for generating transgenic plants resistant to pathogens. Decades ago it was shown that polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies can neutralize viruses, bacteria and selected fungi. This approach has been improved recently by the development of recombinant antibodies (rAbs). Crop resistance can be engineered by the expression of pathogen-specific antibodies, antibody fragments or antibody fusion proteins. The advantages of this approach are that rAbs can be engineered against almost any target molecule, and it has been demonstrated that expression of functional pathogen-specific rAbs in plants confers effective pathogen protection. The efficacy of antibody-based resistance was first shown for plant viruses and its application to other plant pathogens is becoming more established. However, successful use of antibodies to generate plant pathogen resistance relies on appropriate target selection, careful antibody design, efficient antibody expression, stability and targeting to appropriate cellular compartments.     

防御素的生物学特性及其抗病基因工程

防御素是一种富含半胱氨酸的小分子多肽,对细菌等微生物具有广谱抗性,且作用机制特殊。迄今为止,国内外在防御素方面进行了大量的研究,已经从各类生物体中分离出不同种类的防御素,并在基因工程和医药领域呈现广泛的应用前景。文章对防御素的分类、生物学特性,包括哺乳动物α-、β-、θ-防御素、昆虫以及植物防御素的分子结构及抗菌活性进行了综述,阐述了防御素的膜作用及与细胞内复合物结合的作用机制。总结和归纳了防御素基因的分离、表达研究进展及动、植物防御素基因在抗病基因工程领域的应用,并对防御素在未来的生物制药和植物抗病基因工程方面的应用前景进行了展望。     

Population consequences of constitutive and inducible plant resistance: herbivore spatial spread

Abstract Little attention has been paid to the impact that constitutive and inducible plant resistance traits will have on herbivore spatial dynamics. We investigate mathematical models in which herbivore demographic rates and movement rates respond to host plant quality, which in turn is determined by constitutive and inducible resistance. Models with and without induced resistance yield the same analytic expression for the asymptotic speed at which a herbivore population will spread through an initially uninduced plant population, suggesting that induced resistance will have no effect on the rate of invasion of herbivores that respond to plant resistance on small spatial scales. In contrast, constitutive resistance will influence the speed of an invasion. If herbivore movement is quite sensitive to plant quality, an increase in constitutive resistance can actually accelerate the rate of herbivore spread even while it reduces the herbivore's intrinsic rate of increase. In other scenarios, the rate of invasion attains a maximum at intermediate levels of constitutive resistance. These results argue that our view of plant resistance should be broadened to include herbivore movement if we are to understand fully the implications of differences in resistance for the dynamics of herbivore populations in natural and managed settings.     

同源序列法克隆植物抗病基因研究进展及其在野生稻中的应用

随着各种测序计划的完成及生物信息学的发展,植物抗病基因的克隆取得了很大进展,至今有几十个基因已被克隆。研究发现,大多抗病基因都存在特异的保守序列,如富亮氨酸重复序列、核苷酸结合位点、丝氨酸-苏氨酸激酶等。抗病基因的结构特征不仅预示了植物抗病反应中可能的作用机制,而且为分离克隆植物抗病基因提供了一条可行的新途径,如基于同源序列的候选基因法,又称为同源序列法。我们简要综述了已克隆抗病基因的结构、同源序列法克隆抗病基因的研究进展,并对其在野生稻中的应用做了展望。     

Transgenic Plants for Insect Pest Control: A Forward Looking Scientific Perspective

One of the first successes of plant biotechnology has been the creation and commercialisation of transgenic crops exhibiting resistance to major insect pests. First generation products encompassed plants with single insecticidal Bt genes with resistance against major pests of corn and cotton. Modelling studies predicted that usefulness of these resistant plants would be short-lived, as a result of the ability of insects to develop resistance against single insecticidal gene products. However, despite such dire predictions no such collapse has taken place and the acreage of transgenic insect resistance crops has been increasing at a steady rate over the 9 years since the deployment of the first transgenic insect resistant plant. However, in order to assure durability and sustainability of resistance, novel strategies have been contemplated and are being developed. This perspective addresses a number of potentially useful strategies to assure the longevity of second and third generation insect resistant plants.     

The presence of generalist plant pathogens might not explain the long-term coexistence of plant species

Pathogens have been shown to contribute to the possibility of coexistence of competing plant species by creating ecological distinction between the coexisting species. This coexistence promoting mechanism resembles intra-specific density dependence as found in Lotka-Volterra models. However, plant species adapt in their level of resistance against pathogen infection and this adaptation has been shown to be traded-off by a reduction in growth rate. A model is developed to show that taking into account the possible adaptation of plant species to increase their resistance against pathogen infection by generalist pathogens has consequences for the coexistence of the plant species. The results show that in systems where plants adapt to the pathogen infection, coexistence becomes impossible. The implication of this finding is that plant pathogens might contribute less to the coexistence of plant species than is commonly thought.     

植物几丁质酶的结构与功能、分类及进化

近年来对几丁质酶的研究越来越深入,资料也愈来愈多,有的植物几丁质酶除具有几丁质酶活性,还具有其它的活性,典型的几丁质酶由－N－端信号区,催化区和C－端延伸区组成,有的还有几丁质结合域,各项能域具有各自的功能,对植物几丁质酶的分类已经过多次改进,目前公认的分成4组9个亚组,有证据表明植物几丁质酶在进化过程中有遗传转座现象,但具有进化过程还有待进一步确证,对几丁质酶与其它一些蛋白的关系的了解有助于理解几丁质酶的起源和进化,由于几丁质酶具有独特的抗真菌特性,因而几丁质酶基因成为目前抗真菌基因工程研究的热之一。     

植物几丁质酶的结构与功能、分类及进化

近年来对几丁质酶的研究越来越深入,资料也愈来愈多。有的植物几丁质酶除具有几丁质酶活性,还具有其它的活性。典型的几丁质酶由N_端信号区、催化区和C_端延伸区组成,有的还有几丁质结合域。各功能域具有各自的功能。对植物几丁质酶的分类已经过多次改进,目前公认的是分成4组9个亚组。有证据表明植物几丁质酶在进化过程中有遗传转座现象,但具体进化过程还有待进一步确证。对几丁质酶与其它一些蛋白的关系的了解有助于理解几丁质酶的起源和进化。由于几丁质酶具有独特的抗真菌特性,因而几丁质酶基因成为目前抗真菌基因工程研究的热点之一。     

Antibiotic activities of peptides, hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite in plant defence.

Genes encoding plant antibiotic peptides show expression patterns that are consistent with a defence role. Transgenic over-expression of defence peptide genes is potentially useful to engineer resistance of plants to relevant pathogens. Pathogen mutants that are sensitive to plant peptides in vitro have been obtained and a decrease of their virulence in planta has been observed, which is consistent with their hypothetical defence role. A similar approach has been followed to elucidate the potential direct anti-microbial role of hydrogen peroxide. Additionally, a scavenger of peroxynitrite has been used to investigate its involvement in plant defence.     

Protein-protein interactions in pathogen recognition by plants

Protein-protein interactions have emerged as key determinants of whether plant encounters with pathogens result in disease or successful plant defense. Genetic interactions between plant resistance genes and pathogen avirulence genes enable pathogen recognition by plants and activate plant defense. These gene-for-gene interactions in some cases have been shown to involve direct interactions of the products of the genes, and have indicated plant intracellular localization for certain avirulence proteins. Incomplete specificity of some of the interactions in laboratory assays suggests that additional proteins might be required to confer specificity in the plant. In many cases, resistance and avirulence protein interactions have not been demonstrable, and in some cases, other plant components that interact with avirulence proteins have been found. Investigation to date has relied heavily on biochemical and cytological methods including in vitrobinding assays and immunoprecipitation, as well as genetic tools such as the yeast two-hybrid system. Observations so far, however, point to the likely requirement for multiple, interdependent protein associations in pathogen recognition, for which these techniques can be insufficient. This article reviews the protein-protein interactions that have been described in pathogen recognition by plants, and provides examples of how rapid future progress will hinge on the adoption of new and developing technologies.     

Deployment of disease resistance genes by plant transformation - a 'mix and match' approach

Breeding for disease resistance has often resulted in the evolution of a matching virulence within the pathogen population, leading to an apparent 'breakdown' of resistance. In general, plant breeders have responded by introducing new genes for resistance, with similar consequences. This has led to 'boom-bust' cycles, where varieties possessing effective resistance are grown on an expanding acreage (boom) until matching virulence evolves and spreads within the pathogen population (bust). A variety of resistance genes have recently been identified and characterized in model systems. Together with the development of efficient plant transformation systems these genes offer an alternative means to introduce specific resistance into a crop improvement programme. However, unless the resistance genes are deployed with care, the boom-bust cycle is likely to be perpetuated.     

Role of ubiquitination in the regulation of plant defence against pathogens

Ubiquitination is emerging as a common regulatory mechanism that controls a range of cellular processes in plants. Recent exciting discoveries from several laboratories suggest that ubiquitination may also play an important role in plant disease resistance. Several putative ubiquitin ligases have been identified as defence regulators. In addition, a combination of genetic screens and gene-silencing technologies has identified subunits and proposed regulators of SCF ubiquitin ligases as essential components of resistance (R)-gene-mediated resistance. Although no ubiquitin ligase targets that are associated with disease resistance have yet been identified in plants, there is evidence that this well-known protein-modification system may regulate plant defences against pathogens.     

An overview of NMR-based metabolomics to identify secondary plant compounds involved in host plant resistance

Secondary metabolites provide a potential source for the generation of host plant resistance and development of biopesticides. This is especially important in view of the rapid and vast spread of agricultural and horticultural pests worldwide. Multiple pests control tactics in the framework of an integrated pest management (IPM) programme are necessary. One important strategy of IPM is the use of chemical host plant resistance. Up to now the study of chemical host plant resistance has, for technical reasons, been restricted to the identification of single compounds applying specific chemical analyses adapted to the compound in question. In biological processes however, usually more than one compound is involved. Metabolomics allows the simultaneous detection of a wide range of compounds, providing an immediate image of the metabolome of a plant. One of the most universally used metabolomic approaches comprises nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). It has been NMR which has been applied as a proof of principle to show that metabolomics can constitute a major advancement in the study of host plant resistance. Here we give an overview on the application of NMR to identify candidate compounds for host plant resistance. We focus on host plant resistance to western flower thrips (Frankliniella occidentalis) which has been used as a model for different plant species.     

抗真菌植物基因工程的策略和进展

所有高等植物都受多种真菌的侵害,水稻的240多种病害中真菌性痫害占90％。,可见真菌病害是世界范围内危害作物产蘑的主要因素之一,是长期以来作物育种学家一直在努力攻克的难题。目前国     

Proteases in pathogenesis and plant defence

Plant pathogens deliver a variety of virulence factors to host cells to suppress basal defence responses and create suitable environments for their propagation. Plants have in turn evolved disease resistance genes whose products detect the virulence factors as a signal of invasion and activate effective defence responses. Understanding how a virulence effector contributes to virulence on susceptible hosts but becomes an avirulence factor that triggers defence responses on resistance hosts has been a major focus in plant research. Recent studies have shown that a growing list of pathogen-encoded effectors functions as proteases that are secreted into plant cells to modify host proteins. In addition, several plant proteases have been found to function in activation of the defence mechanism. These findings reveal that post-translational modification of host proteins through proteolytic processing is a widely used mechanism in regulating the plant defence response.