NOTES ON THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF MARICO AND PALLID FLYCATCHERS IN THE CENTRAL TRANSVAAL,SOUTH AFRICA

Frost, S.K. 1990. Notes on the breeding behaviour of Marico and Pallid Flycatchers in the central Transvaal, South Africa. Ostrich 61:111-116.

The breeding behaviour of Marico and Pallid Flycatchers (Melaenornis mariquensis and M. pallidus) was studied at the Nylsvley Nature Reserve, South Africa, between September 1980 and January 1981. The flycatchers are morphologically similar but occur in different although sometimes adjacent woodlands. The two species do not differ in their breeding seasons, nor in their clutch sizes. The incubation period, previously unrecorded for Pallid Flycatchers, is 14 days and the fledging period 17 days. Marico Flycatchers fed their chicks more frequently than Pallid Flycatchers and helpers were observed at two Marico Flycatcher nests.     

Molecular phylogeny of the yuhinas (Sylviidae: Yuhina): a paraphyletic group of babblers including Zosterops and Philippine Stachyris

Mitochondrial sequences (2,379 bp) from cytochrome b, ND3, 12s and 16s rRNA were analyzed in order to reconstruct the phylogenetic relationships within the yuhinas (Yuhina), including the chestnut-faced babbler Stachyris whiteheadi which is endemic to the Philippines, the Japanese white-eye Zosterops japonicus, the chestnut-flanked white-eye Z. erythropleurus, and the oriental white-eye Z. palpebrosus. The results showed strong support for the idea that S.whiteheadi and three white-eye species form a clade embedded within the Yuhina clade. The robustness of the Yuhina/Philippine Stachyris/Zosterops clade rejected the validity of the monotypic genus Staphida, which was proposed for the striated yuhina Yuhina castaniceps based on its peculiar morphological traits. Sister group relationships between the striped-throated yuhina Yuhina gularis and the rufous-vented yuhina Yuhina occipitalis and between the whiskered yuhina Yuhina flavicollis and the white-naped yuhina Yuhina bakeri were discovered. The sympatric patterns of the above two sister groups in the Himalayas is most likely due to secondary contact. The molecular phylogeny also suggests that crestlessness was derived just once for the Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris clade. The Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris clade in our study also implies that an ancestor of Zosterops/Philippine Stachyris derived the ability to disperse over long distances, so that it could fly over the sea and arrive at the Philippines.     

Host range and risk assessment of Zygogramma bicolorata,a defoliating agent released in South Africa for the biological control of Parthenium hysterophorus

Parthenium hysterophorus (parthenium) is a weed of international importance and is spreading rapidly in sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, it has been targeted for biocontrol in South Africa since 2003. Based on precedents elsewhere in the world, the defoliating beetle Zygogramma bicolorata was prioritised as a candidate agent. Although no-choice tests, involving some 48 test plant species, indicated a significant preference for parthenium, significantly reduced feeding and oviposition was recorded on some species. Multiple-choice tests resolved many of these non-target results; however, Helianthus annuus (sunflower) was still selected for oviposition and feeding. Of the 12 sunflower cultivars tested, four were selected for oviposition, while two were selected for oviposition and feeding. These six cultivars were then subjected to larval development trials, together with three native and two weed species (in the Asteraceae). These trials showed high levels of complete development on parthenium, significantly reduced development on sunflower cultivars, and partial development on only one of the weed species. Finally, a risk assessment was conducted on the six sunflower cultivars to quantify Z. bicolorata feeding and reproductive performance. Feeding risk calculations revealed these cultivars to have an extremely low risk (<0.2%) of supporting Z. bicolorata feeding and development. Similarly, reproductive risk calculations showed a very low risk (<0.16%) of supporting viable Z. bicolorata populations. These data are supported by findings from both the native (Mexico) and introduced ranges (Australia, India) of Z. bicolorata, where it has never been recorded as a pest of sunflower. These considerations were accepted by the regulatory authorities and in August 2013, Z. bicolorata became the second insect agent to be released in South Africa for the biocontrol of parthenium.     

Evolution along the Great Rift Valley: phenotypic and genetic differentiation of East African white‐eyes (Aves,Zosteropidae)

The moist and cool cloud forests of East Africa represent a network of isolated habitats that are separated by dry and warm lowland savannah, offering an opportunity to investigate how strikingly different selective regimes affect species diversification. Here, we used the passerine genus Zosterops (white‐eyes) from this region as our model system. Species of the genus occur in contrasting distribution settings, with geographical mountain isolation driving diversification, and savannah interconnectivity preventing differentiation. We analyze (1) patterns of phenotypic and genetic differentiation in high‐ and lowland species (different distribution settings), (2) investigate the potential effects of natural selection and temporal and spatial isolation (evolutionary drivers), and (3) critically review the taxonomy of this species complex. We found strong phenotypic and genetic differentiation among and within the three focal species, both in the highland species complex and in the lowland taxa. Altitude was a stronger predictor of phenotypic patterns than the current taxonomic classification. We found longitudinal and latitudinal phenotypic gradients for all three species. Furthermore, wing length and body weight were significantly correlated with altitude and habitat type in the highland species Z. poliogaster. Genetic and phenotypic divergence showed contrasting inter‐ and intraspecific structures. We suggest that the evolution of phenotypic characters is mainly driven by natural selection due to differences in the two macro‐habitats, cloud forest and savannah. In contrast, patterns of neutral genetic variation appear to be rather driven by geographical isolation of the respective mountain massifs. Populations of the Z. poliogaster complex, as well as Z. senegalensis and Z. abyssinicus, are not monophyletic based on microsatellite data and have higher levels of intraspecific differentiation compared to the currently accepted species.     

Bird pollination in South African Salvia species

Approximately one-fourth of the more than 900 world-wide distributed Salvia species (Lamiaceae) is ornithophilous. With few exceptions they occur in the New World, being predominantly pollinated by hummingbirds. In the Old World only Salvia africana-lutea and the recently described Salvia thermarum, both from the Cape Province of South Africa, were observed to be pollinated by sunbirds and white-eyes. Among the 23 South African Salvia species Salvia lanceolata is a further candidate for being bird pollinated. For the first time we describe and illustrate its pollination by Nectarinia chalybea and Zosterops pallidus. We compare the ornithophilous syndrome of the three mentioned Salvia species and relate them to the morphological fitting of the most common nectarivorous birds of the Southwestern Cape (Cape peninsula to Worcester). We conclude that each of the birds could act as a pollinator and that the three co-occurring Salvia species are not mechanically isolated from each other. The degree of specialisation towards bird pollination, possible hybridisation events and evolution of bird pollination in South African Salvia species are discussed.     

Genetic isolation in an endemic African habitat specialist

The Chestnut‐banded Plover Charadrius pallidus is a Near‐Threatened shorebird species endemic to mainland Africa. We examined levels of genetic differentiation between its two morphologically and geographically distinct subspecies, C. p. pallidus in southern Africa (population size 11 000–16 000) and C. p. venustus in eastern Africa (population size 6500). In contrast to other plover species that maintain genetic connectivity over thousands of kilometres across continental Africa, we found profound genetic differences between remote sampling sites. Phylogenetic network analysis based on four nuclear and two mitochondrial gene regions, and population genetic structure analyses based on 11 microsatellite loci, indicated strong genetic divergence, with 2.36% mitochondrial sequence divergence between individuals sampled in Namibia (southern Africa) and those of Kenya and Tanzania (eastern Africa). This distinction between southern and eastern African populations was also supported by highly distinct genetic clusters based on microsatellite markers (global F_ST = 0.309,  = 0.510, D = 0.182). Behavioural factors that may promote genetic differentiation in this species include habitat specialization, monogamous mating behaviour and sedentariness. Reliance on an extremely small number of saline lakes for breeding and limited dispersal between populations are likely to promote reproductive and genetic isolation between eastern and southern Africa. We suggest that the two Chestnut‐banded Plover subspecies may warrant elevation to full species status. To assess this distinction fully, additional sample collection will be needed, with analysis of genetic and phenotypic traits from across the species’ entire breeding range.     

Taxonomic implications for diaptomid copepods based on contrasting patterns of mitochondrial DNA sequence divergences in four morphospecies

Morphological identification methods do not provide reliable and meaningful species identifications for taxa where morphological differences among distinct species are either absent or overlooked (i.e., cryptic species). For example, due to the minute nature of the morphological characters used to delineate diaptomid copepod species and the apparent potential for copepod speciation to occur with little or no morphological change (i.e., morphological stasis), morphological identifications of diaptomid species may not adequately capture their true species diversity. Here, we present results from a geographic survey of mtDNA sequences from populations across the geographic ranges of four North American diaptomid species—Leptodiaptomus minutus, Skistodiaptomus pallidus, Skistodiaptomus reighardi, and Onychodiaptomus sanguineus. Shallow mitochondrial DNA sequence divergences (maximum of 1.1%) among haplotypes of L. minutus from across its geographic range suggest that current morphological identification techniques reliably identify this species. In contrast, we found large mitochondrial DNA sequence divergences (14–22%) among populations within the currently recognized morphospecies of S. pallidus, S. reighardi, and O. sanguineus. However, pairwise sequence divergences within four distinct S. pallidus clades and within populations of S. reighardi and O. sanguineus were similarly low (maximum of 1.5%) as found within L. minutus as a whole. Thus, the S. pallidus, S. reighardi, and O. sanguineus morphospecies may be considered best as cryptic species complexes. Our study therefore indicates that morphological identifications, while sufficient for some species, likely underestimate the true species diversity of diaptomid copepods. As such, we stress the need for extensive taxonomic revision that integrates genetic, morphological, reproductive, and ecological analyses of this diverse and important group of freshwater zooplankton. Furthermore, we believe an extensive taxonomic revision will shed important insight into major questions regarding the roles of geography, phylogeny, and habitat on the frequency of cryptic species on earth. Handling editor: S. I. Dodson     

Phylogeography of the fiscal shrike (Lanius collaris): a novel pattern of genetic structure across the arid zones and savannas of Africa

Aim Savanna occupies a substantial part of Africa, being distributed around the two major tropical rain forest blocks in what is referred to as the Savanna Belt. Our current understanding of the genetic structure within species distributed across the Savanna Belt is primarily derived from mammalian taxa, studies of which have revealed a suture zone or transition between northern and east/southern Africa clades in south‐western Kenya and north‐western Tanzania. We conduct a phylogeographic study of the fiscal shrike (Lanius collaris), a polytypic species distributed across the Savanna Belt of Africa and for which morphological and vocal data are in agreement with the suture zone recovered for mammalian taxa, to test the hypothesis of a spatially congruent genetic break across several taxa, including birds. Location Africa, south of the Sahara. Methods We analysed DNA sequences recovered from four loci (one mitochondrial, two autosomal and one Z‐linked) in 66 individuals, representing all recognized subspecies, as well as putatively closely related species. We make use of a combination of tree‐building and population genetic methods to investigate the phylogeographic structure of the fiscal shrike across Africa. Results The fiscal shrike consists of two primary lineages with a strong geographic component: a northern group distributed from southern Tanzania to Senegal, and a southern group distributed from Botswana/Zambia to South Africa with isolated populations in Tanzania and northern Malawi. Unexpectedly, Souza’s shrike (L. souzae) was nested within L. collaris, as the sister group of the southern group. The positions of Mackinnon’s shrike (L. mackinnoni) and that of the São Tomé shrike (L. newtoni) were variable, being either nested within the fiscal shrike or sister to the L. collaris–L. souzae clade. Our divergence time analyses suggest that the Lanius collaris species complex started to diversify around 2.2 Ma. Main conclusions Our study reveals a distinct biogeographic pattern for a savanna distributed species in Africa, with the transition between the two primary genetic lineages occurring at a latitude of c. 15–16° S, 10° S further south than shown elsewhere for several mammalian species.     

Species diversity and distribution of lepidopteran stem borers in South Africa and Mozambique

Country‐wide surveys of lepidopteran stem borers in wild host plants were undertaken between 2006 and 2009 in South Africa and 2005 and 2010 in Mozambique. A total of 4438 larvae were collected from 65 wild host plants in South Africa and 1920 larvae from 30 wild host plants in Mozambique. In South Africa and Mozambique, 50 and 39 stem borer species were recovered, respectively, with four new species and two new genera among noctuids. Less than 5% of the total number of species collected are considered to be economically important in Africa. These species were Busseola fusca (Fuller) (Noctuidae), Chilo partellus (Swinhoe) (Crambidae) and Sesamia calamistis Hampson (Noctuidae). Data from this study and others in East Africa on the very low abundance of stem borers in wild host plants question the putative role of wild host plants as reservoir for stem borer pests. One new host plant family (Prioniaceae), as well as 24 and 13 wild hosts from South Africa and Mozambique respectively, was added to the list of known hosts in Africa.     

Home away from home — objective mapping of high-risk source areas for plant introductions

Prevention is the best way to slow the escalation of problems associated with biological invasions. Screening of potential introductions is widely applied for assessing the risk of species becoming invasive. Despite advances in the understanding of the determinants of invasiveness, screening still relies heavily on assessments of the potential of species to ‘fit in’ to the broad environmental conditions of a target region. Most screening systems ask whether species are native to, or are known to be naturalized or invasive in, regions with ‘similar’ climatic/environmental conditions to the target region. The level of similarity required to make the species a high‐risk introduction is generally not specified. This paper describes a protocol for making such assessments more objective, using South Africa as a test case. Using nonparametric niche‐based modelling (generalized additive model; GAM) calibrated on the current distribution of each South African biome, we mapped regions of the world that are climatically similar to South African biomes. Lists were produced of countries with the largest areas climatically similar to South Africa overall, and to each biome separately. Validation of the usefulness of the approach was sought by evaluating whether the main invasive plant species in South African biomes occur naturally, or have adventive ranges, in regions mapped as analogous to South African biomes. A very large part of the world is climatically similar to South Africa, with eight countries having larger areas of land classified as climatically similar to South African biomes than the total area of South Africa. Almost all the most prominent invasive species in South African biomes occur naturally or are invasive outside their natural range in areas with similar climates to those that occur in parts of South Africa. This confirms the value of objective climate matching in screening protocols. We examined climatic conditions for a representative sample of major invasive plants from other parts of the world. The analysis identified several species that are already invasive in regions that have matched climates in South Africa but that are not yet introduced or, if already present, have not yet invaded large areas. For example, the following known invasive species should be considered high‐risk species in South African grasslands: Alliaria petiolata, Cytisus scoparius, Gleditsia triacanthos, Heracleum mantegazzianum, Hieracium pilosella, Juniperus communis, Pinus contorta, P. monticola, P. ponderosa, P. sylvestris, Prunus laurcerasus, and P. serotina. Objectively matched climatic regions are also useful as a first‐cut assessment when evaluating species with no invasive history.     

Hidden diversity in bent‐winged bats (Chiroptera: Miniopteridae) of the Western Palaearctic and adjacent regions: implications for taxonomy

The taxonomic status of bent‐winged bats (Miniopterus) in the Western Palaearctic and adjacent regions is unclear, particularly in some areas of the eastern Mediterranean, Middle East and Arabia. To address this, we analysed an extensive collection of museum materials from all principal parts of this distribution range, i.e. North Africa, Europe and southwest Asia, using morphological (skull) and genetic approaches (mitochondrial DNA). Linear and geometric morphometric analysis of cranial and dental characteristics, together with molecular phylogeny, suggested that Miniopterus populations comprise four separate species: (1) M. schreibersii sensu strictissimo (s.str.) – occurring in Europe, coastal Anatolia, Levant, Cyprus, western Transcaucasia, and North Africa; (2) M. pallidus – occurring in inland Anatolia, Jordan, eastern Transcaucasia, Turkmenistan, Iran and southern Afghanistan (Kandahar); (3) a Miniopterus sp. – recorded from Nangarhar province in eastern Afghanistan, which we tentatively assign to M. cf. fuliginosus; and (4) a Miniopterus sp. with Afro‐tropic affinities confirmed from south‐western Arabia and Ethiopia, which we tentatively name M. cf. arenarius. The latter two species are well differentiated by skull morphology, while M. pallidus possesses very similar skull morphology to M. schreibersii. The results also suggest the existence of a possible new taxon (subspecies) within M. schreibersii s.str. inhabiting the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London     

Release from native root herbivores and biotic resistance by soil pathogens in a new habitat both affect the alien <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ammophila arenaria</Emphasis> in South Africa

Many native communities contain exotic plants that pose a major threat to indigenous vegetation and ecosystem functioning. Therefore the enemy release hypothesis (ERH) and biotic resistance hypothesis (BRH) were examined in relation to the invasiveness of the introduced dune grass Ammophila arenaria in South Africa. To compare plant–soil feedback from the native habitat in Europe and the new habitat in South Africa, plants were grown in their own soil from both Europe and South Africa, as well as in sterilised and non-sterilised soils from a number of indigenous South African foredune plant species. While the soil feedback of most plant species supports the ERH, the feedback from Sporobolus virginicus soil demonstrates that this plant species may contribute to biotic resistance against the introduced A. arenaria, through negative feedback from the soil community. Not only the local plant species diversity, but also the type of plant species present seemed to be important in determining the potential for biotic resistance. As a result, biotic resistance against invasive plant species may depend not only on plant competition, but also on the presence of plant species that are hosts of potential soil pathogens that may negatively affect the invaders. In conclusion, exotic plant species such as A. arenaria in South Africa that do not become highly invasive, may experience the ERH and BRH simultaneously, with the balance between enemy escape versus biotic resistance determining the invasiveness of a species in a new habitat.Plant nomenclature follows Arnold and De Wet (1993)     

‘Flying barnacles’: implications for the spread of non-indigenous species

The presence of adult barnacles of Fistulobalanus pallidus (Darwin) and Fistulobalanus albicostatus (Pilsbry) attached to field-readable plastic leg rings on the Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus fuscus in Northern Europe is reported. L. fuscus is a long-distance palaearctic migrant, breeding in temperate areas spreading widely over inland and marine habitats outside the breeding season. The species is known to perform long-distance migration to Africa and the Middle East. Combining present knowledge on the birds' migratory pattern and the home range of the barnacle species, it is concluded that the cypris larvae of F. pallidus must have settled in African waters, whereas the area where F. albicostatus settled on the bird leg rings is less certain. The barnacles were of adult size and must thus have been attached for a period of no less than 2 months. More than 30 individual barnacles could occur together on a single field-readable plastic leg ring. The barnacles could therefore, if ported alive to a new area, reproduce successfully and thus either introduce the species or genetically affect other native populations. This may pose a new and wholly unexpected transportation pathway for barnacles as invasive species.     

Assessing the risks associated with the release of a flowerbud weevil, Anthonomus santacruzi, against the invasive tree Solanum mauritianum in South Africa

Biological control of Solanum mauritianum Scopoli, a major environmental weed in the high-rainfall regions of South Africa, is dependent on the establishment of agents that can reduce fruiting and limit seed dispersal. The flowerbud weevil, Anthonomus santacruzi Hustache, is a promising fruit-reducing agent, despite ambiguous results obtained during host-specificity evaluations in quarantine. Adult no-choice tests showed that although feeding is confined to Solanum species, normal feeding and survival occurred on the foliage (devoid of floral material) of cultivated eggplant (aubergine), potato, and several native South African Solanum species. During paired-choice tests, involving floral bouquets in 10-liter containers, A. santacruzi oviposited in the flower buds of 12 of the 17 test species, including potato and eggplant, although significantly more larvae were recovered on S. mauritianum than on eight other species. Larvae survived to adults on all 12 species, with survival significantly lower on only four species than on S. mauritianum. However, during multi-choice tests, involving potted plants in a large walk-in cage, A. santacruzi consistently displayed significant feeding and oviposition preferences for S. mauritianum over all of the 14 Solanum species tested. Analyses of the risk of attack on nontarget Solanum plants suggested that, with the possible exception of two native species, none is likely to be extensively utilized as a host in the field. Also, host records and field surveys in South America have suggested that A. santacruzi has a very narrow host range and that the ambiguous laboratory results are further examples of artificially expanded host ranges. These and other considerations suggest that A. santacruzi should be considered for release against S. mauritianum in South Africa, and an application for permission to release the weevil was submitted in 2003.     

Genetic diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bradysia difformis</Emphasis> (Sciaridae: Diptera) populations reflects movement of an invasive insect between forestry nurseries

The fungus gnat, Bradysia difformis (Sciaridae: Diptera) has recently been recorded for the first time from South Africa where it has been found in forestry nurseries. The presence of this insect in all the major forestry nurseries as the dominant and only sciarid species raises intriguing questions regarding its origin and population genetic structure. A 395 bp portion of the mitochondrial COI gene was analysed from B. difformis individuals collected from four nursery populations in South Africa and three nursery populations in Europe. Shared haplotypes between South African and European populations indicated a historical connection. South African populations showed high genetic diversity and low genetic differentiation. These patterns most likely reflect multiple and/or relatively large introductions of B. difformis into South Africa from its origin combined with subsequent and continued movement of plants between nurseries.     

Biology,host range and varietal preference of the leaf-feeding geometrid, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leptostales ignifera</Emphasis>, a potential biocontrol agent for <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lantana camara</Emphasis> in South Africa,under laboratory conditions

Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae) is a weed of major importance in South Africa. It invades indigenous forests and veld, valuable commercial and agricultural forests, plantations and orchards, as well as river-catchment areas. Several natural enemies, including insect and pathogen species, have been released in South Africa, some of which established successfully. These do not exert sufficient control and additional natural enemies are required. Leptostales ignifera Warren (Lepidoptera: Geometridae), one of several new species being investigated as potential biocontrol agents, was collected in the subtropical parts of Florida, USA and Mexico. Host specificity trials indicated L. camara to be the preferred host plant of this quick-developing, voracious leaf-feeder, with some of the African indigenous Lippia species qualifying as very marginal hosts. The possible preference that L. ignifera might have for different South African naturalized L. camara varieties was studied during quarantine laboratory preference trials. Variety 029WP was the most suitable host for L. ignifera, although the other four tested varieties were able to support viable populations of the insect. Not taking other abiotic and biotic factors such as climate and predation into consideration, once released, L. ignifera should be able to establish on all five of the tested varieties in the field and contribute to the biological control of the complex of L. camara as a whole. Based on the above studies, permission has been granted for the release of L. ignifera in South Africa.     

Pollination and reproduction enhance the invasive potential of an early invader: the case of Lythrum salicaria (purple loosetrife) in South Africa

The potential of an alien plant to spread rapidly and colonize new habitat may be related to the mode of reproduction and the ability to attract pollinators. Most studies focus on widespread invasive plants, in which pollinators are rarely limiting. Here, we assess the ability of a recent invader in South Africa, the tristylous Lythrum salicaria to self-reproduce and whether this can explain the delay between introduction and spread. This study was conducted in one of the largest known populations (a total of 7 populations in South Africa) of L. salicaria in the Liesbeek river in the fynbos biome. We assessed the importance of pollinators and autonomous selfing in L. salicaria by comparing seed set between pollinator excluded and naturally pollinated flowers. Overall, 5 pollinators (4 native and 1 alien) were recorded with Cape honeybees and Africa Monarch butterflies the most prominent. Seed and fruit set were significantly higher in open pollinated flowers compared to pollinator excluded flowers. Also, seed and fruit set in pollinator excluded flowers were higher in long and medium morphs compared to short morphs. Germination was high for seeds from pollinator, but also from pollinator excluded treatments. This shows that L. salicaria in South Africa is self-compatible to some extent, but it is frequented by pollinators, significantly increasing seed production. Despite L. salicaria being tristylous, all 3 morphs are present in South Africa and with a huge seed production, this species has the potential to become a major invader of rivers and wetlands in South Africa.

     

Biogeography,rarity and endemism in Cineraria (Asteraceae–Senecioneae)

The biogeography of Cineraria (Asteraceae, Senecioneae) is assessed using a chorological approach in terms of its distribution, centres of diversity and endemism. Rare species are identified and categorised according to Rabinowitz's criteria and causes for rarity in the genus are investigated. The conservation status of the species is assessed according to IUCN criteria for Red List categories and compared to levels of rarity. The main phytogeographic affinity of Cineraria is Afromontane in association with seven recognised centres of endemism in South Africa, four in tropical Africa, in Ethiopia and in Madagascar. Fifteen species are endemic and six are near‐endemic to a specific centre of endemism or mountain range. Seventy four percent of Cineraria spp. are endemic to southern Africa with the centre of diversity in the KwaZulu‐Natal Midlands, South Africa. The rarest species number 11; of these eight are endangered or vulnerable according to IUCN Red Data Criteria and three are data deficient. Causes of rarity in Cineraria are related to narrow habitat specificity, notably soil or rock type and/or altitudinal range. Paired comparisons of the 11 rarest and commonest species reveal no convincing causal links to morphological, reproductive or life history strategy attributes in Cineraria. © 2009 University of the Witwatersrand, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2009, 160 , 130–148.     

Invasion status of Florida bass Micropterus floridanus (Lesueur, 1822) in South Africa

Largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides are a popular North American angling species that was introduced into South Africa in 1928. To enhance the largemouth bass fisheries, Florida bass Micropterus floridanus were introduced into KwaZulu Natal, South Africa, in 1980. Knowledge on the status of M. floridanus in South Africa is required, because it lives longer and reaches larger sizes than M. salmoides, which may result in heightened impacts on native biota. Because M. floridanus are morphologically similar, but genetically distinct from M. salmoides, the distribution of this species was assessed by genetically screening 185 Micropterus sp. individuals sampled from 20 localities across South Africa using the mitochondrial ND2 gene. Individuals with mitochondrial DNA matching M. salmoides were recovered from 16 localities, whereas M. floridanus mitochondrial DNA was recovered from 13 localities. At nine localities (45%), the mitochondrial DNA of both species was detected. These results demonstrate M. floridanus dispersal to multiple sites across South Africa.