麋鹿行为谱及PAE编码系统

以麋鹿为实例,通过辨识行为的基本单元,区别了“姿势”、“动作”和“环境”,分解了动物行为的层次,然后根据行为的适应和社群机能归类,建立了以“姿势—动作—环境”为轴心的,以生态功能为分类依据的动物行为分类编码系统（PAE编码分类系统）。PAE编码分类系统以集合论为基础,明确了动物行为的三要素：姿势、动作和生态环境之间的关系,避免了笼统地将动物的姿势、动作和行为混为一谈的做法,区分了动物行为的组成要素和结构层次。行为要素编码方法为动物行为学研究提供了一个新的生长点。在继承前人工作的基础上,记录了有关麋鹿的姿势、动作和行为达200多种,还区别了各种行为在雄性、雌性和幼体之间的相对发生频次以及发生季节。     

THE JUST-ABOUT-RIGHT INTENSITY SCALE: FUNCTIONAL ANALYSES AND RELATION TO HEDONICS

This study assessed the meaning of just‐about‐right (JAR) categories when used with a 5‐point intensity scale. The panelists comprised both consumer and in‐house respondents. The JAR categories have various meanings as perceived by the respondents: “prefer product,”“very good,”“I like the product,”“like it very much,”“highly favorable,”“high acceptability,”“desirable like the product,”“best for the situation” and “correct.” Thus, the JAR meanings invoke preference and acceptability. This article presents two additional analyses to help the product tested. One method of analysis divides below‐JAR deviation from the above‐JAR deviation, with standard statistical procedures applied in each data set. The second method introduces the signal‐to‐noise ratio statistic for analyzing the relation of JAR to overall liking. Both analytic methods provide new ways to look at the JAR data, especially with respect to hedonics and product improvement.     

基于中华鲟繁殖群体数量的长江中、下游生态环境考核指标

繁殖群体数量是中华鲟能否成功繁殖的重要影响因子, 建议作为长江生态考核的重要评价指标。根据重要种群参数和历史数据, 基于稳态转换理论和方法, 确定中华鲟繁殖群体数量指标的评估基准值和等级, 670尾以上为“优”、400—670尾为“良”、200—400尾为“中”、50—200尾为“差”、50尾以下为“极差”。水声学探测结果显示, 1998—2001年中华鲟繁殖群体数量指标评级为“良”; 2004—2012年三峡工程蓄水后至向家坝蓄水前评级为“中”; 2013—2020年评级为“极差”。为了复壮中华鲟野生种群, 建议修复葛洲坝下中华鲟产卵场功能, 大规模放流性成熟亲鱼和大规格个体, 建立国家级中华鲟保育中心。     

Species diversity and microsite divergence of insects at “Evolution Canyon”, Lower Nahal Oren,Mt. Carmel,Israel (Coleoptera: Buprestidae)

Abstract

Local differences in species richness and abundance of buprestid beetles were studied at the microsite “Evolution Canyon”, Lower Nahal Oren, Mt. Carmel, Israel, a model conceived for studying biodiversity evolution in a microcosm of life in nature. 39 species were collected at the microsite, and species richness was higher on the more arid and microclimatically stressful and variable south-facing slope than on the milder, more humid and relatively homogeneous north-facing slope. The interslope differences in abundance were significant in five species. New larval host plants were added for nine species, as well as new data about the regional distribution of buprestid beetles. The results support earlier conclusions in various groups of organisms across phylogeny.     

ON SOME PECULIARITIES IN THE LIFE HISTORY OF PENNATE DIATOMS HITHERTO OVERLOOKED

In this paper, as a sequel of my survey appeared in 1969 in this Journal, supplements are given to the topics “Pairing,” “Gametogenesis,” “Haploid Parthenogenesis,” “Hybrids,” “Automixis,” and “Some Cytological Details” in pennate diatoms. The various kinds of peculiarities are facts—their interpretation in terms of physiology and biochemistry, indeed, rest completely open for future research.     

Israel: The making of self in the “pioneering” of the nation

The Zionist project was more than a simple “ingathering” of people. All Jews by birth, those who reached Palestine in the early decades of this century were swept into the making of a “new” people with a “new” ethic and a “new” discipline—out of which would emerge the “old‐new” state of Israel. The present article addresses this multiple process with its strains and contradictions, as experiences by the “pioneer” generation and their Palestinian‐born children—the sabra.     

台湾海峡晚更新世人类肱骨化石

产自台湾海峡海底的人类右肱骨石化程度高; 个体大而粗壮 ,三角肌粗隆发育 ,骨干上下两半段不在同一纵轴上 ,形成 6 5°的夹角 ,这些显示不同于新石器时代和现代人的原始性状 ,其演化水平和日本的港川人及欧洲的克罗马农人相当。与人化石一同捞出的哺乳动物化石有古菱齿象、野马、最后鬣狗、达氏四不像鹿等 ,表明其时代为晚更新世晚期。     

THE BIOLOGY OF SPECIATION

Since Darwin published the “Origin,” great progress has been made in our understanding of speciation mechanisms. The early investigations by Mayr and Dobzhansky linked Darwin's view of speciation by adaptive divergence to the evolution of reproductive isolation, and thus provided a framework for studying the origin of species. However, major controversies and questions remain, including: When is speciation nonecological? Under what conditions does geographic isolation constitute a reproductive isolating barrier? and How do we estimate the “importance” of different isolating barriers? Here, we address these questions, providing historical background and offering some new perspectives. A topic of great recent interest is the role of ecology in speciation. “Ecological speciation” is defined as the case in which divergent selection leads to reproductive isolation, with speciation under uniform selection, polyploid speciation, and speciation by genetic drift defined as “nonecological.” We review these proposed cases of nonecological speciation and conclude that speciation by uniform selection and polyploidy normally involve ecological processes. Furthermore, because selection can impart reproductive isolation both directly through traits under selection and indirectly through pleiotropy and linkage, it is much more effective in producing isolation than genetic drift. We thus argue that natural selection is a ubiquitous part of speciation, and given the many ways in which stochastic and deterministic factors may interact during divergence, we question whether the ecological speciation concept is useful. We also suggest that geographic isolation caused by adaptation to different habitats plays a major, and largely neglected, role in speciation. We thus provide a framework for incorporating geographic isolation into the biological species concept (BSC) by separating ecological from historical processes that govern species distributions, allowing for an estimate of geographic isolation based upon genetic differences between taxa. Finally, we suggest that the individual and relative contributions of all potential barriers be estimated for species pairs that have recently achieved species status under the criteria of the BSC. Only in this way will it be possible to distinguish those barriers that have actually contributed to speciation from those that have accumulated after speciation is complete. We conclude that ecological adaptation is the major driver of reproductive isolation, and that the term “biology of speciation,” as proposed by Mayr, remains an accurate and useful characterization of the diversity of speciation mechanisms.     

MORPHOLOGY AND GENETICS OF A PERIODIC COLONIAL MUTANT OF NEUROSPORA CRASSA

A mutant of strain 69–1113a of Neurospora crassa, which shows periodic growth upon both complete and minimal media, was named “clock,” and some of the morphological and genetic differences between this mutant and the “patch” and “wild” strains were investigated. In contrast to the uniform growth of “wild,” the “clock” mutant produces a series of bands formed by cymelike aggregations of hyphae which become progressively more dense and finally mark the end (front) of a growth band. A new growth band is formed by a number of hyphae which grow out as in “wild” strains and dichotomize and form new cymes which again become progressively more dense and finally form a new front. It is shown that “clock” continues its rhythmic growth when cultured in continuous darkness. Some “wild” strains were induced to grow periodically on appropriate media. A medium containing equal quantities of sorbose and sucrose caused strain 65–811A (a “wild”) to produce the “patch” type growth. Random isolation, as well as ordered isolation, of ascospores following a cross between “wild” and “clock” show a 1: 1 segregation indicating that “clock” differs from “wild” by a single gene.     

长江生态考核指标: 基于被动声学监测的长江江豚数量

长江是复杂的生态系统, 但是随着长江生态环境的持续变化, 尤其是人类扰动所致的变化, 长江中的几种极其重要的大型物种先后因此而走向“灭绝”, 或“极可能灭绝”, 或“极度濒危”, 因此在现阶段有必要以现存于长江中的大型物种的生存状况为核心, 建立一项新的生态考核指标, 以综合表征长江生态系统的健康状况和生物多样性的完整性, 为“十年禁捕”和《长江保护法》的顺利实施提供科技支持。长江江豚(Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis)仅分布于长江中下游及洞庭湖、鄱阳湖, 是长江中极可能仅存的大型水生哺乳动物, 多年来一直受到社会各界的高度关注, 已成为长江“明星”物种。长江江豚种群分布和数量的变化与长江生态环境和鱼类资源的变化密切相关, 具有综合表征生态环境质量和生物多样性及其变化的基本属性。在复杂的水下声环境中, 长江江豚的声纳信号具有独特的时频特征, 具有较强的可监测性和可量化特征, 并且已被广泛应用于长江江豚的被动声学监测、实时识别和群体估算。同时, 在自然水域对长江江豚进行被动声学监测是一项方便和高效的工作。在沿江和沿湖设置一些样地水域, 布置水下声学仪器, 开展长期被动声学监测, 不但可以掌握长江江豚的分布规律、群体规模及其变化, 而且可以为定量分析样地水域生态环境质量和鱼类等水生生物的丰度提供可信的依据, 继而可以为定量评价所监测水域人类活动对生态环境及水生生物扰动提供长期数据支撑。因此, 基于被动声学监测的长江江豚种群数量, 可作为一项重要的生态考核指标, 用于定量评价长江生态环境质量和水生生物多样性及其在时间和空间上的变化, 并用于考核相关保护工作的落实情况和实际的保护效果。     

Multistate Luminescent Solar Concentrator “Smart” Windows

A supertwist liquid crystalline luminescent solar concentrator (LSC) “smart” window is fabricated which can be switched electrically between three states: one designed for increased light absorption and electrical generation (the “dark” state), one for transparency (the “light” state), and one for enhanced haziness (“scattering” state). In the scattering state, the absorption and edge emissions decrease while the face emissions are enhanced. This new LSC “smart” window state can find application as a privacy feature in housing, but could also allow for a new “smart” window application as a diffuse glazing to increase plant growth in horticultural applications.     

THE CONTRIBUTION OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS TO THERMAL SENSITIVITY CURVE VARIATION IN DROSOPHILA SERRATA

Many traits studied in ecology and evolutionary biology change their expression in response to a continuously varying environmental factor. One well‐studied example are thermal performance curves (TPCs); continuous reaction norms that describe the relationship between organismal performance and temperature and are useful for understanding the trade‐offs involved in thermal adaptation. We characterized curves describing the thermal sensitivity of voluntary locomotor activity in a set of 66 spontaneous mutation accumulation lines in the fly Drosophila serrata. Factor‐analytic modeling of the mutational variance–covariance matrix, M , revealed support for three axes of mutational variation in males and two in females. These independent axes of mutational variance corresponded well to the major axes of TPC variation required for different types of thermal adaptation; “faster‐slower” representing changes in performance largely independent of temperature, and the “hotter‐colder” and “generalist‐specialist” axes, representing trade‐offs. In contrast to its near‐absence from standing variance in this species, a “faster‐slower” axis, accounted for most mutational variance (75% in males and 66% in females) suggesting selection may easily fix or remove these types of mutations in outbred populations. Axes resembling the “hotter‐colder” and “generalist‐specialist” modes of variation contributed less mutational variance but nonetheless point to an appreciable input of new mutations that may contribute to thermal adaptation.     

THE MICRO-OPTICS OF LEAVES. I. PATTERNS OF REFLECTION FROM THE EPIDERMIS

Low-magnification photographs of glabrous upper surfaces using white light show that no matter whether the visual appearance is shiny or matte, the outer cuticles are specularly reflective. In all cases, the individual epidermal cells are seen as bright spots of reflected light, due to their convex outer surfaces. This shows that at least some of the apparently diffuse reflection from leaves is specularly reflected from the outer surface. Quantitative data were obtained for both upper and lower surfaces of a variety of leaves, using light of 632.8 nm incident at 60° from the normal. Light departing the leaf was detected in two directions: normal to the leaf (“diffuse”), and at 60° (“specular”), and compared with the reflection from a standard white block. By this criterion, some leaves were quite shiny, confirming the visual impression, but others were not. In only two cases did the “diffuse” reflection exceed the “specular” (as would be expected from a true diffuse reflector); these were leaves with thick coatings of hairs. Less than 10% of the incident light is reflected by the cuticle of a glabrous leaf.     

CELL SIZE DIFFERENTIATION IN THE BLOOM-FORMING DINOFLAGELLATE GYMNODINIUM CF. NAGASAKIENSE1

Two subpopulations differing essentially by their mean cell size were observed regularly in cultures and natural samples of the naked dinoflagellate Gymnodinium cf. nagasakiense Takayama et Adachi (currently known as Gyrodinium aureolum Hulburt), a species which frequently forms red tides in North European seas. “Large” cells represented the typical forms; they were morphologically similar to cells of the closely related Japanese species G. nagasakiense, which did not form any subpopulation of reduced size. “Small” and “large” cells of G. cf. nagasakiense had the same DNA content, but the nucleus of the former appeared to be much more condensed during interphase. Each cell type was able to divide and had its own growth dynamics; therefore, any intermediary between pure populations of “small” and of “large” cells were observed in culture. The “large” form generated a “small” cell by an atypical budding-like division, whereas the “small” form gave back a “large” form, once it ceased to divide, by simple enlargement of its cell body. Factory inducing cell size differentiation are yet unclear. Neither nitrogen nor phosphorus starvation induced a significant increase in the relative proportion of “small” and budding cells. Although cell size differentiation is associated with the formation of gametes in a variety of dinoflagellates, we demonstrated that “small” cells of G. cf. nagasakiense are able to divide asexually, in contrast to gametes of most other species. The high proliferative power of “small” cells as compared with normal cells suggests that they could play a significant role during red tides of G. cf. nagasakiense; in contrast, cells of the Japanese species G. Nagasakiense could sustain high growth rates with larger cell size because this species generally blooms in waters much warmer than those found in northern Europe.     

RETRODISPLACEMENT OF THE ORAL AND ANAL OPENINGS IN DENDRASTERID SAND DOLLARS

In regular echinoids, the mouth opening (or peristome) and the anal opening (or periproct) are located centrally. In irregular echinoids, the peristome tends to shift toward the anterior end of the test, whereas the periproct typically shifts toward the posterior end. This produces an anatomically polarized morphology, which is consistent with functional expectations. In the dendrasterid sand dollars, however, the peristome and periproct have been displaced in the “wrong” directions; the peristome has shifted posteriorly, whereas the periproct has shifted anteriorly. These movements, which run counter to functional expectations, may be termed “retrodisplacements.” This study presents a new model for the development of the oral surface in dendrasterids. The model assumes that the “Dendraster pattern” of development (which occurs in dendrasterids) was derived from the older “Echinarachnius pattern” (which occurs in other northern Pacific sand dollars). The Echinarachnius pattern includes two successive phases of asymmetric growth: the first phase favors anterior growth, whereas the second phase favors posterior growth. These two phases are normally balanced, and at maturity, the test appears to be symmetrical. But if the second phase of unequal growth were suppressed through a heterochronic change in development, the effects on test development would be profound. On the aboral surface, the predicted effects include posterior displacement of the apical system. On the oral surface, the predicted effects include retrodisplacement of the peristome and periproct, as well as conspicuous changes in ambulacral and interambulacral development. In fact, all of the predicted effects are characteristic features of dendrasterids. The model assumes that the oral and aboral surfaces could be simultaneously affected by the same developmental processes. This assumption is supported by empirical evidence: in dendrasterids, there is a strong correlation between the displacement of the apical system (on the aboral surface) and the displacement of the peristome (on the oral surface). The displacement of the apical system (known as “apical eccentricity”) is regarded as a valuable adaptation, because it facilitates suspension feeding. But if oral and aboral development are linked, then selective pressure for apical eccentricity would simultaneously produce new oral characters as well. Thus, the retrodisplacement of the peristome and periproct in dendrasterids may be related to developmental constraints. These unusual characters may have little or no functional significance.     

AUXIN RELATIONSHIPS IN THE ALASKA PEA (PISUM SATIVUM)

Scott , Tom K., and Winslow R. Briggs . (Stanford U., Stanford, Calif.) Auxin relationships in the Alaska pea (Pisum sativum). Amer. Jour. Bot. 47(6) : 492–499. Illus. 1960.—The distribution of “free” auxin in the 9-day-old ‘Alaska’ pea epicotyl was determined by short-term ether extraction and by the standard agar diffusion technique. The apical bud appeared to be the only source of “free” auxin. In the upper (growing) internode “free” auxin as determined by diffusion was found to decrease significantly from apex to base, while “free” auxin as determined by extraction remained constant. Below this region, both diffusible and extractable auxin remain constant through one internode and then both decrease simultaneously to the base of the plant. In the growing region, a fraction of diffusible auxin must move from the transport system but remain readily extractable. Upon removal of the apical auxin source all “free” auxin will ultimately be found in the transport system from which it gradually disappears basally.     

Nonself help: how immunology might reframe the Enlightenment

The classical immunological paradigm is predicated on the body's ability to recognize and eliminate “nonself.” However, the “self–nonself” model has yet to facilitate any resolution of the field's major concerns, and may thus prove to be of limited use. Merely discarding it is no solution, as the juxtaposition of “self” and “nonself” persists in research, in clinical settings, and in everyday practice despite the best efforts of theoretical immunologists. Instead, the very conception of “selfhood” may prove to be key. Replacing immunology's prior and persistent “self” with less static concepts derived from non-Western contexts not only resolves immunology's famous paradoxes but also offers a new and more accurate model that allows immunology to reframe what may become an outmoded Enlightenment construct of “self.” In such a new paradigm, immunology's well-known system of protection and defense is replaced with a view in which nonself becomes less the body's enemy than its primary mechanism for the creative assimilation of difference. This incorporative model—in which the “immune system” functions more as a search engine than as an expeller of difference—both resolves outstanding paradoxes, and complies more accurately with contemporary knowledge and research practice.     

THE EFFECT OF A PARTIAL BARRIER ON THE MOVEMENT OF A HYBRID ZONE

Computer simulations of clines (Brues, 1972; Endler, 1977) as well as theoretical arguments (Nagylaki, 1975), have shown that steps in gene frequencies will be pulled to partial barriers (areas of reduced gene flow) if they form within approximately a cline width of the partial barrier. The behavior of a hybrid zone between two chromosomal taxa (“Moreton” and “Torresian”) of the acridine grasshopper Caledia captiva in southeast Queensland has been analyzed and found to comform qualitatively with a model of altered gene flow patterns. Clines in four enzyme systems were analyzed for 1983 and 1986 along a transect across the hybrid zone. The clines have shifted towards an area of regenerating forest, while homozygote frequencies have increased at this point. This forest barrier has broken the continuity of the spatial distribution of C. captiva, forming population islands in part of the hybrid zone, and thus reducing the amount of gene flow. The distance between the barrier and the original cline is approximately of the order of a cline width, so that they would be expected to interact. Historical information suggests that the secondary contact between the “Moreton” and “Torresian” taxa occurred very recently (1844–1940), due to the intensive land-clearing activities during the European settlement.     

Sex Cells: Gender and the Language of Bacterial Genetics

Between 1946 and 1960, a new phenomenon emerged in the field of bacteriology. “Bacterial sex,” as it was called, revolutionized the study of genetics, largely by making available a whole new class of cheap, fast-growing, and easily manipulated organisms. But what was “bacterial sex?” How could single-celled organisms have “sex” or even be sexually differentiated? The technical language used in the scientific press – the public and inalienable face of 20th century science – to describe this apparently neuter organism was explicit: the cells “copulated,” had “intimate contract,” “conjugal unions,” and engaged in “ménage ã trois” relationships. And yet, to describe bacteria as sexually reproducing organisms, the definition of sex itself had to change. Despite manifold contradictions and the availability of alternative language, the notion of sexually active (even promiscuous) single-celled organisms has persisted, even into contemporary textbooks on cell biology and genetics. In this paper I examine the ways in which bacteria were brought into the genetic fold, sexualized, and given gender; I also consider the issues underlying the durability of “bacterial sex.”     

Lay perceptions of genetic testing in Germany and Israel: the interplay of national culture and individual experience

Germany and Israel represent opposite regulatory approaches and bioethical outlooks regarding genetic testing. This study examines lay attitudes (including attitudes of people affected by genetic diseases) in both countries towards genetic testing of adults, focusing on the differences between cultural and personal argumentations, as well as between affected and non-affected perspectives. With regard to three major emerging themes – medical technology/technocratic medicine; economic aspects of healthcare; and personal decision-making – a national contrast was apparent on the cultural level of argumentation, but not in the personal context of decision-making or in the concerns of people affected by genetic diseases. We conclude by discussing the interplay of national culture and individual experience in constructing arguments about the harms and benefits of genetic testing, and the implications for the study of cross-cultural bioethics in the context of “genetic responsibility”.