转Bt基因作物Bt毒蛋白在土壤中的安全性研究

商业化的转Bt基因作物获准在田间大面积种植,使其释放的Bt毒蛋白对土壤生态系统的生态风险性问题成为人们关注的焦点,本文综述了转Bt抗虫作物以植株残体、根系分泌物、花粉等形式释放的Bt毒蛋白通过田间耕作等方式进入土壤后的一些安全性问题,包括土壤活性颗粒对Bt毒蛋白的吸附作用。Bt毒蛋白在土壤中的杀虫活性、存留,土壤微生物对Bt毒蛋白的降解作用以及Bt毒蛋白对土壤生物的影响等。     

转Bt基因水稻对土壤微生态系统的潜在影响

随着转基因作物商品化应用的增多,对其进行生态风险性评价尤为重要.国内外对转基因作物中外源基因向野生亲缘物种漂移的可能性、昆虫对抗虫转基因作物的耐受性以及转基因作物对生物多样性的潜在影响等问题进行了广泛的研究.文中从Bt杀虫结晶蛋白在土壤中的残留特性、Bt杀虫晶体蛋白对土壤微生物可培养类群和土壤酶活性的影响等方面对转Bt基因抗虫水稻的潜在生态风险性进行了简要综述,以期为同类研究提供有益的信息.     

转基因植物对土壤污染相关研究

随着转苏云金芽孢杆菌基因（Bacillus thuringiensis, Bt）作物（后面全用转Bt基因作物代替）的推广应用，有关转Bt基因作物对土壤中微生物的生态风险尚无统一的结论。丛枝菌根(Arbusular Mycorrhiza, AM）真菌在土壤中分布广泛，是监测转Bt基因作物生态风险评估的重要微生物群落。Bt杀虫蛋白的表达及释放，可能会使AM真菌共生过程中一些重要阶段的生态共生效应受到影响。转Bt基因作物对AM真菌的影响可作为转Bt基因作物生态风险评价的重要指标。文章以紫云英为宿主植物，通过盆栽实验，人为添加提取的Bt蛋白，检测Bt蛋白对AM真菌侵染率、酶的活性以及生物量的影响，以探索Bt蛋白对AM真菌侵染性及共生效应的影响，从而为转Bt基因作物的生态风险评估提供参考。     

转Bt基因作物Bt毒素在土壤中的环境去向及其生态效应

综述了转Bt基因作物的Bt毒素在土壤中的环境去向及其生态效应的研究进展。重点阐述了：①Bt毒素与土壤表面活性颗粒结合及其与土壤理化性质的关系;②Bt毒素微生物利用与降解;③Bt毒素的杀虫活性;④后茬作物和土壤动物对Bt毒素的吸收与利用;⑤Bt毒素的垂直运移;⑥Bt毒素对土壤生物和生态过程的影响。转Bt基因作物的Bt毒素对土壤生态系统的影响急需在生态系统水平进行深入细致的长期定位研究。     

转Bt基因玉米的生态安全性研究进展

随着转基因作物的应用和推广 ,转 Bt基因作物释放后对生态环境及其它方面产生的潜在影响越来越受到重视。分别从生物活性杀虫晶体蛋白在土壤中的残留特性、杀虫晶体蛋白对土壤中非目标生物的影响、转 Bt基因玉米植株体成分的变化、转Bt基因玉米花粉中杀虫晶体蛋白的表达特性及其在田间和马力筋叶片上的散积状况、花粉中表达的杀虫晶体蛋白对君主斑蝶的毒性、君主斑蝶幼虫暴露在 Bt花粉中的概率及综合风险评价估算等方面对转 Bt基因玉米产生的杀虫晶体蛋白与土壤生态环境的相互作用、花粉对非目标生物影响的研究现状进行了综述。通过对转 Bt基因作物生态安全性的科学评价和广泛宣传 ,以确保生物技术的健康发展。     

转基因棉种植对土壤水解酶活性的影响

转Bt基因棉和转Bt＋cpTI基因棉种植面积不断扩大,它们种植后杀虫晶体蛋白在土壤中的残留特性及对土壤水解酶活性的影响是环境风险评价的重要组成部分,本文采用盆栽实验的方法对此进行了初步研究。结果表明,转基因棉出苗后生长到30天时可向土壤中释放Bt杀虫晶体蛋白,而双抗棉种植时CpTI杀虫晶体蛋白的释放量与品种有关;转基因棉出苗后30天时,与等价基因系非转基因棉（各对照）相比,转Bt基因棉（“中30”）和双抗棉A（转Bt＋CpTI棉“中41”）的种植并未使脲酶、蛋白酶和磷酸单脂酶活性发生显著变化,而双抗棉B（转Bt＋CpTI棉“双抗321”）的种植使土壤磷酸单脂酶活性显著下降。从杀虫晶体蛋白的释放和对酶活性的影响来看,双抗棉A的种植对土壤的生物活性扰动更小。     

种植转Bt基因水稻对土壤酶活性的影响

转Bt基因及非Bt基因水稻的盆栽试验研究表明,转Bt基因水稻在生长发育过程中可以向土壤中释放杀虫晶体蛋白,而且杀虫晶体蛋白的释放量与水稻生长发育时间有关;与非Bt基因水稻相比,转Bt基因水稻生长15d时,土壤脲酶活性显著下降(降幅为2．47％),土壤酸性磷酸酶活性显著升高(增幅为8．91％),而土壤芳基硫酸酯酶、蔗糖酶和脱氢酶活性的变化差异不显著;生长30d时,土壤脲酶活性仍显著下降(降幅为16．36％),土壤酸性磷酸酶、芳基硫酸酯酶和脱氢酶活性显著升高(增幅分别为35．69％,19．70％和16．83％),而土壤蔗糖酶活性变化差异仍不显著。     

转Bt基因作物对土壤生态影响的研究进展

将Bt基因加以修饰改造后转入农作物中进行表达,使其成为具有抵抗特异害虫能力的转Bt基因作物。转Bt基因作物的产物Bt蛋白通过作物残体、根系分泌物和花粉3种方式进入土壤。Bt蛋白在土壤中会发生富集作用,其含量在作物的不同发育期有所不同。Bt蛋白会对土壤蛋白酶、脲酶、蔗糖酶、磷酸酶、脱氢酶等土壤酶活性和土壤细菌、真菌、放线菌等土壤微生物以及土壤线虫、环节动物、昆虫和蜘蛛等土壤动物产生影响。     

转Bt基因作物杀虫蛋白土壤残留及检测研究进展

随着转Bt基因作物的大面积推广和应用,其释放的毒蛋白在土壤中的残留及对土壤生态系统的影响等问题已经成为人们关注的热点。国内外学者们通过室内构建大田模拟模型的方法对土壤中残留的Bt毒蛋白进行了研究,并取得了显著的进展。土壤是生态系统中物质循环和能量转化过程的主要场所,转Bt基因植物的外源基因表达的Bt毒蛋白可以通过植株残体、根及根系分泌物和花粉的散播等途径进入土壤生态系统,这些高度特化了的Bt毒素蛋白一旦在土壤中积累,将会导致土壤特异生物功能类群以及土壤多样性发生改变,甚至产生级联效应。大量研究表明,苏云金芽孢杆菌产生的Bt毒蛋白进入土壤后,可与土壤粘粒和腐质酸迅速结合,不易分离,而且较之游离态,更难被土壤微生物降解。纯化的Bt毒蛋白与无菌土壤中活性颗粒紧密结合后,存留时间至少可达234d。虽然结合态的Bt蛋白用酶联免疫法(ELISA)方法检测不到,但生物测定表明其仍保持杀虫活性。对转Bt基因作物的研究表明,Bt棉组织埋入土壤7d内,土壤中可提取的杀虫晶体蛋白浓度快速下降,之后下降速度比较稳定,甚至维持数周不变。而Bt玉米根系分泌物和植株残体释放的杀虫晶体蛋白在土壤中至少保持180d杀虫活性。虽然关于Bt毒蛋白在土壤中存留时间的长短,可能因实验材料、试验方法和条件的不同而不同。但是总之,如果长期种植转Bt基因作物,很可能会造成Bt毒蛋白在土壤中的积累,并最终威胁到整个土壤生态系统的平衡。目前对土壤中Bt毒蛋白定性和定量检测的方法主要有印迹分析法(Western-blotting)、SDS-PAGE法、斑点印迹酶联免疫吸附法(dot-blotELISA)、流式细胞仪法(Flowcytometer,FCM)、ELISA平板试剂盒及试剂条和生物测定法。其中最直接、简易、准确的方法是ELISA平板试剂盒及试纸条快速检测法和生物测定法。但检测土壤残留Bt毒蛋白时,采用的方法不同,检测的结果也有差异。     

转Bt基因作物对蚯蚓影响研究进展

转苏云金杆菌杀虫蛋白(Bt)基因作物的商品化种植可能对土壤生态系统产生不利影响是近10年来颇有争议的问题.转Bt基因作物可通过多种方式向土壤中释放苏云金杆菌杀虫蛋白即Bt蛋白,从而引起土壤生物和生态系统基本功能的变化;蚯蚓可加快动植物残体的降解,促进有机质的分解和矿化,与其他土壤生物相比,蚯蚓对某些污染物更敏感.本文从研究中用到的蚯蚓种类、采用的实验方式、研究的科学问题等方面综述了转Bt基因作物对土壤动物蚯蚓影响的研究进展,并对转Bt基因作物对土壤动物蚯蚓影响研究的发展趋势进行了展望,旨在为转Bt基因作物对非靶标土壤动物的影响提供参考,进而为全面评价转Bt基因作物对土壤生态系统的影响提供依据.     

Regulation of Bt crops in Canada

The Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) regulates environmental releases of plants with novel traits, which include transgenic plants such as Bt crops. Bt crops are regulated in Canada because they express insect resistance novel to their species. Commercialization of crops with novel traits such as the production of insecticidal Bt proteins requires an approval for environmental release, as well as approvals for use as feed and food. Environmental factors such as potential impacts on non-target species are considered. Insect resistance management (IRM) may be imposed as a condition for environmental release of Bt crops to delay the development of resistance in the target insect. Bt potato and European corn borer-resistant Bt corn have been released with mandatory IRM. The CFIA imposes an IRM plan consisting of appropriate refugia, education of farmers and seed dealers, and monitoring and mitigation. Industry, regulators, government extension staff and public researchers provide expert advice on IRM.     

Insecticidal activity of Cry3Bb1 expressed in Bt maize on larvae of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata

Environmental risk assessment for genetically modified crops producing insecticidal Cry proteins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) includes the evaluation of adverse effects on non-target organisms. Although ELISA concentration measurements indicate the presence of Cry proteins, sensitive insect bioassays determine whether there is biological activity. The insecticidal activity of the coleopteran-active Cry3Bb1 expressed in different tissues of Bt maize, contained in maize-fed herbivores, and in spiked soil was measured in sensitive insect bioassays using larvae of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Biological activity was confirmed of Cry3Bb1 contained in pulverized Bt maize pollen, roots, leaves, silk, and Bt maize-fed spider mites and western corn rootworm adults. When test substances were incorporated into artificial diet at the same concentrations of Cry3Bb1 (measured by ELISA), maize pollen and leaf litter exhibited lower toxicity than fresh plant material and maize-fed arthropods. This suggests that nutritional quality of food and degradation of Cry proteins may influence toxicity to insects. When soil was spiked with Cry3Bb1, the Bt protein was highly adsorbed and retained its full biological activity. Because toxicity of Cry proteins contained in different matrices cannot always be determined from ELISA values alone, sensitive insect bioassays can improve hazard and exposure assessments in environmental risk assessment of Bt crops.     

鳞翅目昆虫中肠Bt杀虫蛋白受体研究进展

杀虫晶体蛋白(insecticidal crystal proteins,ICPs;含有Cry和Cyt 2大家族)和营养期杀虫蛋白(vegetative insecticidal proteins,Vips)等Bt杀虫蛋白可有效防治鳞翅目害虫,其中Cry应用最广泛。然而,一些地区的鳞翅目害虫已对Bt杀虫蛋白产生了抗性。目前,普遍认为鳞翅目昆虫中肠受体与Bt杀虫蛋白结合能力的改变是导致其对Bt杀虫蛋白产生抗性的最主要因素。在鳞翅目昆虫中,Cry受体是研究得最为透彻的Bt受体,已经被证实的有氨肽酶N、钙黏蛋白、碱性磷酸酶和ABC转运蛋白等。Vips杀虫蛋白类与鳞翅目昆虫中肠受体的结合方式与Cry杀虫蛋白相似,但结合位点与Cry杀虫蛋白不同。本文从结构特点、作用机制及不同鳞翅目昆虫间的表达差异等角度对以上4种鳞翅目昆虫中肠Bt受体进行了综述,并提出如下展望:(1)以棉铃虫或小菜蛾等鳞翅目昆虫为农业害虫模式生物进行深入研究,阐明其对Bt杀虫蛋白产生抗性的机制,为研究其他鳞翅目农业害虫对Bt杀虫蛋白产生抗性的机制提供理论借鉴;(2)鉴于在不同鳞翅目昆虫间,中肠Bt受体与Bt杀虫蛋白结合存在差异,且同一Bt杀虫蛋白与鳞翅目昆虫Bt受体并不专一性结合,Bt杀虫蛋白多基因组合策略是较为有效的田间鳞翅目昆虫防治策略,是今后一段时间内Bt杀虫蛋白应用的发展方向。     

Structure of Cry2Aa suggests an unexpected receptor binding epitope

BACKGROUND: Genetically modified (GM) crops that express insecticidal protein toxins are an integral part of modern agriculture. Proteins produced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) during sporulation mediate the pathogenicity of Bt toward a spectrum of insect larvae whose breadth depends upon the Bt strain. These transmembrane channel-forming toxins are stored in Bt as crystalline inclusions called Cry proteins. These proteins are the active agents used in the majority of biorational pesticides and insect-resistant transgenic crops. Though Bt toxins are promising as a crop protection alternative and are ecologically friendlier than synthetic organic pesticides, resistance to Bt toxins by insects is recognized as a potential limitation to their application. RESULTS: We have determined the 2.2 A crystal structure of the Cry2Aa protoxin by multiple isomorphous replacement. This is the first crystal structure of a Cry toxin specific to Diptera (mosquitoes and flies) and the first structure of a Cry toxin with high activity against larvae from two insect orders, Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) and Diptera. Cry2Aa also provides the first structure of the proregion of a Cry toxin that is cleaved to generate the membrane-active toxin in the larval gut. CONCLUSIONS: The crystal structure of Cry2Aa reported here, together with chimeric-scanning and domain-swapping mutagenesis, defines the putative receptor binding epitope on the toxin and so may allow for alteration of specificity to combat resistance or to minimize collateral effects on nontarget species. The putative receptor binding epitope of Cry2Aa identified in this study differs from that inferred from previous structural studies of other Cry toxins.     

Molecular approaches towards development of novel Bacillus thuringiensis biopesticides

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) has been used for control of lepidopteran, dipteran and coleopteran insects for over three decades. Novel Bt strains harbouring new types of insecticidal genes are being discovered worldwide. Recombinant strains with enhanced toxicity and broadened insecticidal spectrum have been constructed. To increase the field persistence of insecticidal crystal proteins (ICPs), alternative modes of their delivery in Pseudomonas sp. and endophytes have been developed. ICPs have been modified by site-directed mutagenesis to improve their insecticidal efficacy. Higher yields of ICPs have been achieved by use of strong expression promoters and other regulatory elements. Gene-disabling of the sporulation-specific protease has led to yield enhancement of ICPs. Interestingly, Bt toxins have been found to act synergistically with some other pesticidal agents. Optimization of fermentation conditions is an essential requirement for cost-effective commercial production of Bt biopesticides. The environmental impact of deployment of genetically engineered biopesticides has been assessed. Recombinant Bt strains that do not carry any non-Bt DNA, endophytes, encapsulation in killed bacteria (such as Pseudomonas) and asporogenous Bt strains are ecologically safe approaches. Efficient resistance management strategies require judicious use of Bt transgenic plants in conjunction with refugia and Bt biopesticides in an Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program. This revised version was published online in November 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Bt crop effects on functional guilds of non-target arthropods: a meta-analysis

Background

Uncertainty persists over the environmental effects of genetically-engineered crops that produce the insecticidal Cry proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). We performed meta-analyses on a modified public database to synthesize current knowledge about the effects of Bt cotton, maize and potato on the abundance and interactions of arthropod non-target functional guilds.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We compared the abundance of predators, parasitoids, omnivores, detritivores and herbivores under scenarios in which neither, only the non-Bt crops, or both Bt and non-Bt crops received insecticide treatments. Predators were less abundant in Bt cotton compared to unsprayed non-Bt controls. As expected, fewer specialist parasitoids of the target pest occurred in Bt maize fields compared to unsprayed non-Bt controls, but no significant reduction was detected for other parasitoids. Numbers of predators and herbivores were higher in Bt crops compared to sprayed non-Bt controls, and type of insecticide influenced the magnitude of the difference. Omnivores and detritivores were more abundant in insecticide-treated controls and for the latter guild this was associated with reductions of their predators in sprayed non-Bt maize. No differences in abundance were found when both Bt and non-Bt crops were sprayed. Predator-to-prey ratios were unchanged by either Bt crops or the use of insecticides; ratios were higher in Bt maize relative to the sprayed non-Bt control.

Conclusions/Significance

Overall, we find no uniform effects of Bt cotton, maize and potato on the functional guilds of non-target arthropods. Use of and type of insecticides influenced the magnitude and direction of effects; insecticde effects were much larger than those of Bt crops. These meta-analyses underscore the importance of using controls not only to isolate the effects of a Bt crop per se but also to reflect the replacement of existing agricultural practices. Results will provide researchers with information to design more robust experiments and will inform the decisions of diverse stakeholders regarding the safety of transgenic insecticidal crops.     

Vip3A resistance alleles exist at high levels in Australian targets before release of cotton expressing this toxin

Crops engineered to produce insecticidal crystal (Cry) proteins from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) have revolutionised pest control in agriculture. However field-level resistance to Bt has developed in some targets. Utilising novel vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vips), also derived from Bt but genetically distinct from Cry toxins, is a possible solution that biotechnical companies intend to employ. Using data collected over two seasons we determined that, before deployment of Vip-expressing plants in Australia, resistance alleles exist in key targets as polymorphisms at frequencies of 0.027 (n = 273 lines, 95% CI = 0.019-0.038) in H. armigera and 0.008 (n = 248 lines, 0.004-0.015) in H. punctigera. These frequencies are above mutation rates normally encountered. Homozygous resistant neonates survived doses of Vip3A higher than those estimated in field-grown plants. Fortunately the resistance is largely, if not completely, recessive and does not confer resistance to the Bt toxins Cry1Ac or Cry2Ab already deployed in cotton crops. These later characteristics are favourable for resistance management; however the robustness of Vip3A inclusive varieties will depend on resistance frequencies to the Cry toxins when it is released (anticipated 2016) and the efficacy of Vip3A throughout the season. It is appropriate to pre-emptively screen key targets of Bt crops elsewhere, especially those such as H. zea in the USA, which is not only closely related to H. armigera but also will be exposed to Vip in several varieties of cotton and corn.     

How to cope with insect resistance to Bt toxins?

Transgenic Bt crops producing insecticidal crystalline proteins from Bacillus thuringiensis, so-called Cry toxins, have proved useful in controlling insect pests. However, the future of Bt crops is threatened by the evolution of insect resistance. Understanding how Bt toxins work and how insects become resistant will provide the basis for taking measures to counter resistance. Here we review possible mechanisms of resistance and different strategies to cope with resistance, such as expression of several toxins with different modes of action in the same plant, modified Cry toxins active against resistant insects, and the potential use of Cyt toxins or a fragment of cadherin receptor. These approaches should provide the means to assure the successful use of Bt crops for an extended period of time.     

转Bt基因作物毒素土壤存活特性及与土壤性质的关系研究进展

随着转Bt基因作物的推广和应用,其对生态环境及其它方面可能产生的影响越来越受到重视。加之Bt毒素蛋白检测技术的发展,国外学者们围绕纯化毒素蛋白与土壤的相互关系等方面开展了大量研究,并取得了一些结果。本文介绍了转Bt基因作物产生的毒素蛋白的杀虫特性,杀虫蛋白的测定方法,转Bt基因作物向大田释放存在的潜在风险及土壤矿物质,有机质,有机矿质复合体对纯化Bt毒素存活的影响,毒素在根际土壤中的行为等方面的研究现状,最后,提出了今后有关研究应注意的几个问题。     

High susceptibility of Bt maize to aphids enhances the performance of parasitoids of lepidopteran pests

Concerns about possible undesired environmental effects of transgenic crops have prompted numerous evaluations of such crops. So-called Bt crops receive particular attention because they carry bacteria-derived genes coding for insecticidal proteins that might negatively affect non-target arthropods. Here we show a remarkable positive effect of Bt maize on the performance of the corn leaf aphid Rhopalosiphum maidis, which in turn enhanced the performance of parasitic wasps that feed on aphid honeydew. Within five out of six pairs that were evaluated, transgenic maize lines were significantly more susceptible to aphids than their near-isogenic equivalents, with the remaining pair being equally susceptible. The aphids feed from the phloem sieve element content and analyses of this sap in selected maize lines revealed marginally, but significantly higher amino acid levels in Bt maize, which might partially explain the observed increased aphid performance. Larger colony densities of aphids on Bt plants resulted in an increased production of honeydew that can be used as food by beneficial insects. Indeed, Cotesia marginiventris, a parasitoid of lepidopteran pests, lived longer and parasitized more pest caterpillars in the presence of aphid-infested Bt maize than in the presence of aphid-infested isogenic maize. Hence, depending on aphid pest thresholds, the observed increased susceptibility of Bt maize to aphids may be either a welcome or an undesirable side effect.