高等植物醇脱氢酶及其基因家族研究进展

醇脱氢酶属于高等植物中普遍存在的一个锌结合脱氢/还原蛋白超家族,根据作用底物不同,将高等植物中的醇脱氢酶分为3个家族:乙醇脱氢酶(alcohol dehydrogenase,ADH)、肉桂醇脱氢酶(cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase,CAD)、甲醛脱氢酶(formaldehyde dehydrogenase,FDH)。3个家族均不同程度地响应植物逆境胁迫,不仅受低氧胁迫等逆境的诱导,也受ABA等激素的调控。CAD催化木质素合成,参与构建植物防御体系。ADH在植物香气物质合成中发挥作用,受乙烯等激素调控,选择性地进行短的直链醇和醛之间的相互转化,催化香气物质前体的合成。本文综述了醇脱氢酶家族在高等植物中对逆境的响应、木质素和香气物质合成方面的研究概况,以期为醇脱氢酶的深入研究提供参考。     

植物肉桂醇脱氢酶及其基因研究进展

肉桂醇脱氢酶(cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase,CAD)作为植物次生代谢特别是木质素合成的关键酶,与植物生长发育和抵御病原菌入侵关系密切,研究CAD基因表达调控及其与组织木质化的关系具有重要的植物生理学意义.该文综述了植物CAD的蛋白特征、酶学性质、基因分布和分类、基因结构和表达调控以及CAD表达与木质素合成的关系,为研究CAD在植物生长发育和抗病中的作用提供理论指导.     

孝顺竹肉桂醇脱氢酶基因的克隆及表达研究

肉桂醇脱氢酶(cinnamoyl alcohol dehydrogenas,CAD)是木质素生物合成过程中的一类关键酶.采用RT-PCR及RACE方法从孝顺竹笋中分离出CAD基因家族的一个基因,cDNA全长是1131 bp(GenBank注册号为GU985522),含有一个1 107 bp的读码框,编码一个368 aa...     

西瓜嫁接体发育中木质素合成及代谢相关酶活性的变化

研究了西瓜/葫芦嫁接体发育过程中砧木和接穗部分木质素含量及其代谢相关酶的活性变化.结果表明,嫁接体发育过程中木质素生物合成加快,砧木及接穗部分的过氧化物酶(POD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)、苯丙氨酸解胺酶(PAL)、肉桂醇脱氢酶(CAD)等的活性均明显高于对照,接穗和砧木中POD活性在15 d内持续升高,H2O2含量和CAT活性于嫁接后9~12 d出现高峰,砧木中PAL于9 d时有活性高峰而接穗一直保持较高活性而没有活性高峰,木质素含量和CAD活性持续增长,葫芦砧木木质素的代谢水平高于西瓜接穗.     

香蕉肉桂醇脱氢酶基因的克隆及表达分析

肉桂醇脱氢酶(CAD)在木质素合成过程中起关键作用。通过RACE(rapid-amplification of cDNA ends)方法从香蕉根系cDNA均一化全长文库中获得一个肉桂醇脱氢酶基因,命名为MaCAD1(GenBank登录号为KF582533)。MaCAD1是香蕉MYB基因编码框全长cDNA,包含一个1 077bp的最大开放阅读框(ORF),编码358个氨基酸。蛋白质序列同源比对发现,其含有完整的醇脱氧酶的典型保守结构域,属于典型的CAD蛋白。系统进化树比对分析表明,MaCAD1与水稻OsCAD6(CAD39907)的亲缘关系较近。组织特异性研究表明MaCAD1基因组成型表达于香蕉各个组织。在耐病和感病品种中,MaCAD1均上调表达,但在耐病品种中MaCAD1在所有时间点相对于对照增加的倍数均高于感病品种,表明MaCAD1基因在香蕉的抗病性中起着重要作用,MaCAD1可以作为一个新的响应枯萎病侵染的标记基因。     

新疆核桃WJ-CAD和ZJ-CAD基因克隆及时空表达表达分析

肉桂醇脱氢酶(CAD)是木质素生物合成中最后一步反应酶。本研究采用RT-PCR技术克隆露仁核桃WJ-CAD基因和硬壳完整核桃ZJ-CAD基因,研究CAD基因在硬壳完整和露仁核桃内果皮中发育过程中的表达特性。WJ-CAD基因cDNA序列含有788 bp ORF,编码258个氨基酸,分子量84.57 kD,理论等电点5.05;ZJ-CAD基因cDNA序列含有666 bp ORF,编码332个氨基酸,分子量81.93 kD,理论等电点5.09;对所编码的蛋白预测分析表明均属于FrmA超基因家族;实时荧光定量PCR结果表明,WJ-CAD基因的相对表达量整体呈现下降-上升-下降的趋势,ZJ-CAD基因的相对表达量整体均呈现上升-下降-上升-下降的趋势,2个基因均在花后65 d表达量达到最高峰,其后期表达量均较低,CAD基因在"温138"核桃内果皮中的表达量远低于同期"纸皮"的表达量。推测"温138"核桃露仁现象由于花后65 d后木质素合成量降低,导致缺乏木质素的积累或影响木质素单体的组成,从而造成内果皮发育不完整(露仁),初步证明CAD基因参与调控木质素合成,露仁现象可能由于硬核期缺乏木质素的积累。     

蒙古冰草肉桂醇脱氢酶基因序列鉴定及功能分析

肉桂醇脱氢酶(CAD)作为植物次生代谢尤其是木质素生物合成过程的关键酶,在调控植物生长发育和抵御生物/非生物胁迫等过程中发挥关键作用。蒙古冰草(即沙芦草(Agropyron mongolicum))耐旱耐寒,在我国北方荒漠草原区域广泛分布。为探讨CAD基因在蒙古冰草木质素合成和非生物胁迫抗性中的作用,从蒙古冰草全长转录组数据中筛选并克隆到1个CAD基因,序列长度1 083 bp,命名为AmCAD。该基因编码361个氨基酸残基,同源序列比对发现蛋白质序列保守区域含有2个Zn²⁺结合基序和NADP(H)辅因子结合基序,属于典型的CAD蛋白,且三维结构与AtCAD5相似。AmCAD在茎秆中高表达,对AmCAD重组蛋白的酶学性质分析表明,该蛋白对不同肉桂醛类底物均具有很强的催化能力,其中对松柏醛和芥子醛的底物亲和力更强。用不同浓度甘露醇模拟干旱胁迫,蒙古冰草AmCAD基因表达受到显著诱导。研究结果表明,AmCAD在蒙古冰草木质素合成和干旱胁迫抗性中发挥重要作用,可为提高蒙古冰草品质和抗逆性分子育种提供有价值的基因资源。     

不同贮藏温度对枇杷果肉木质化及相关酶活性的影响

将“解放钟”枇杷(Eriobotrya japonicaL ind l.cv.Jiefangzhong)果实于4℃和12℃下贮藏,研究了不同贮藏温度对采后枇杷果肉木质化及相关酶活性的影响。结果表明,4℃贮藏的枇杷果肉苯丙氨酸解氨酶(phenylalan ineammon ia lyase,PAL)、4-香豆酸辅酶A连接酶(4-coum arate coenzym e A ligase,4-CL)、肉桂醇脱氢酶(c innamyl alco-hol dehydrogenase,CAD)和过氧化物酶(peroxidase,POD)活性高于12℃贮果,而多酚氧化酶(polyphenol oxidase,PPO)活性低于12℃贮果。4℃贮藏的枇杷果肉硬度和木质素含量不断增加,果肉木质化较为严重;12℃贮藏的枇杷果肉硬度和木质素含量低于4℃贮果,果肉木质化程度较低。低温诱导PAL和POD活性的上升是导致枇杷果肉发生木质化的主要原因。     

华南象草PpCAD基因的亚细胞定位及其在转基因烟草中的异源表达

该研究根据已克隆的华南象草(Pennisetum purpureum cv.Huanan)肉桂醇脱氢酶(CAD)基因PpCAD的cDNA序列,构建亚细胞定位载体pAN580-PpCAD,用PEG介导法转化象草原生质体,以探究PpCAD蛋白在细胞内的定位;同时构建植物过表达载体pBA002-PpCAD,通过农杆菌介导法在烟草中异源表达,以研究PpCAD基因与植物木质素合成的关系。结果显示:(1)PpCAD定位在象草原生质体的细胞质内;(2)过表达载体pBA002-PpCAD转化烟草后获得27株转基因烟草,其中25株PCR鉴定为阳性;(3)半定量RT-PCR检测6株转基因烟草后发现,PpCAD基因在不同植株的表达量存在差异,通过Southern杂交检测后发现该差异与目的基因插入的拷贝数有关;(4)6株转基因烟草和野生型烟草表型上没有明显差异,除目的基因多拷贝插入的植株OEC6外,木质素含量有不同程度的提高,最高比野生型提高了56.50%。研究表明,PpCAD是一个细胞质蛋白,在烟草中过表达PpCAD能够提高植株木质素含量,表明PpCAD基因参与了植物的木质素合成,可用于象草的木质素调控研究。     

ZmFBL41 Chang7-2: 玉米抗纹枯病的关键利器

由真菌Rhizoctonia solani引起的纹枯病严重危害玉米(Zea mays)和水稻(Oryza sativa)等作物的安全生产。R. solani的宿主范围广且抗源少, 加之相关的抗性机制研究有限, 导致纹枯病的危害长期得不到有效控制。近期, 中国科学家通过对318份玉米自交系进行全基因组关联分析, 筛选到1个与纹枯病抗性相关的、编码F-box结构域蛋白的候选基因ZmFBL41 (GRMZM2G109140)。ZmFBL41蛋白是SCF (SKP1-Cullin-F-box) E3泛素连接酶复合体的一员, 能介导复合体对肉桂醇脱氢酶ZmCAD的降解, 从而降低木质素的积累, 使玉米易感纹枯病。玉米抗病自交系Chang7-2中, 蛋白ZmFBL41 ^Chang7-2因2个关键氨基酸的变异, 不能结合并降解底物ZmCAD, 使木质素含量增加, 从而提高玉米对纹枯病的抗性。该研究率先揭示了SCF复合体可通过降解肉桂醇脱氢酶来调控植物免疫反应的新型分子机制, 为提高玉米及其它作物对纹枯病的抗性提供了重要理论依据和基因资源。     

Alcohol Dehydrogenases: Identification and Names for Gene Families

Plant gene products that have been described as `alcohol dehydrogenases' are surveyed and related to their CPGN nomenclature. Most are Zn-dependent medium chain dehydrogenases, including `classical' alcohol dehydrogenase (Adh1), glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase (Fdh1), cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (Cad2), and benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase (Bad1). Plant gene products belonging to the short-chain dehydrogenase class should not be called alcohol dehydrogenases unless such activity is shown.     

Purification and properties of cinnamoyl-CoA reductase and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase from poplar stems (Populus X euramericana)

Cinnamoyl-CoA reductase and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase were purified to apparent homogeneity from poplar stems (Populus euramericana) and their main properties were studied. Only one form was identified for each enzyme. The reductase corresponded to one polypeptide of molecular weight 36 000 and the cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase was constituted of two identical subunits of molecular weight 40 000. These characteristics are in agreement with most of the data obtained for the same enzymes isolated from other plants. The two reductive enzymes are inhibited by thiol reagents and a metal chelator 1,10-phenanthroline. The isoelectric point of the reductase (pH 7.5) and of the dehydrogenase (pH 5.6) were determined by chromatofocusing. The cinnamoyl-CoA reductase exhibit a decreasing affinity towards feruloyl-CoA, sinapoyl-CoA and p-coumaroyl-CoA. The cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase, which catalyses the reduction of the three cinnamaldehydes, exhibits its highest efficiency towards coniferaldehyde. In spite of differences in the monomeric composition of lignins from xylem and sclerenchyma the reductive enzymes isolated from these two lignified tissues exhibit the same substrate specificity. Consequently, they do not play an important role in the qualitative control of lignins in poplar tissues.     

Characterization of two isozymes of coniferyl alcohol dehydrogenase from Streptomyces sp. NL15-2K

We purified two isozymes of coniferyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CADH I and II) to homogeneity from cell-free extracts of Streptomyces sp. NL15-2K. The apparent molecular masses of CADH I and II were determined to be 143 kDa and 151 kDa respectively by gel filtration, whereas their subunit molecular masses were determined to be 35,782.2 Da and 37,597.7 Da respectively by matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Thus, it is probable that both isozymes are tetramers. The optimum pH and temperature for coniferyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity were pH 9.5 and 45 °C for CADH I and pH 8.5 and 40 °C for CADH II. CADH I oxidized various aromatic alcohols and allyl alcohol, and was most efficient on cinnamyl alcohol, whereas CADH II exhibited high substrate specificity for coniferyl alcohol, and showed no activity as to the other alcohols, except for cinnamyl alcohol and 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1-propanol. In the presence of NADH, CADH I and II reduced cinnamaldehyde and coniferyl aldehyde respectively to the corresponding alcohols.     

Characterization of Two Isozymes of Coniferyl Alcohol Dehydrogenase from Streptomyces sp. NL15-2K

We purified two isozymes of coniferyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CADH I and II) to homogeneity from cell-free extracts of Streptomyces sp. NL15-2K. The apparent molecular masses of CADH I and II were determined to be 143 kDa and 151 kDa respectively by gel filtration, whereas their subunit molecular masses were determined to be 35,782.2 Da and 37,597.7 Da respectively by matrix-assisted laser-desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Thus, it is probable that both isozymes are tetramers. The optimum pH and temperature for coniferyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity were pH 9.5 and 45 °C for CADH I and pH 8.5 and 40 °C for CADH II. CADH I oxidized various aromatic alcohols and allyl alcohol, and was most efficient on cinnamyl alcohol, whereas CADH II exhibited high substrate specificity for coniferyl alcohol, and showed no activity as to the other alcohols, except for cinnamyl alcohol and 3-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1-propanol. In the presence of NADH, CADH I and II reduced cinnamaldehyde and coniferyl aldehyde respectively to the corresponding alcohols.     

Production and solid-phase refolding of human glucagon-like peptide-1 using recombinant Escherichia coli

A cDNA encoding cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD), catalyzing conversion of cinnamyl aldehydes to corresponding cinnamyl alcohols, was cloned from secondary xylem of Leucaena leucocephala. The cloned cDNA was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS cells. Temperature and Zn(2+) ion played crucial role in expression and activity of enzyme, such that, at 18°C and at 2 mM Zn(2+) the CAD was maximally expressed as active enzyme in soluble fraction. The expressed protein was purified 14.78-folds to homogeneity on Ni-NTA agarose column with specific activity of 346 nkat/mg protein. The purified enzyme exhibited lowest Km with cinnamyl alcohol (12.2 μM) followed by coniferyl (18.1 μM) and sinapyl alcohol (23.8 μM). Enzyme exhibited high substrate inhibition with cinnamyl (beyond 20 μM) and coniferyl (beyond 100 μM) alcohols. The in silico analysis of CAD protein exhibited four characteristic consensus sequences, GHEXXGXXXXXGXXV; C(100), C(103), C(106), C(114); GXGXXG and C(47), S(49), H(69), L(95), C(163), I(300) involved in catalytic Zn(2+) binding, structural Zn(2+) binding, NADP(+) binding and substrate binding, respectively. Tertiary structure, generated using Modeller 9v5, exhibited a trilobed structure with bulged out structural Zn(2+) binding domain. The catalytic Zn(2+) binding, substrate binding and NADP(+) binding domains formed a pocket protected by two major lobes. The enzyme catalysis, sequence homology and 3-D model, all supported that the cloned CAD belongs to alcohol dehydrogenase family of plants.     

Regulatory role of cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase in the formation of guaiacyl and syringyl lignins

The substrate specificities of cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD) of angiosperms and gymnosperms were examined using coniferaldehyde and sinapaldehyd     

Oxidation of cinnamyl alcohols and aldehydes by a basic peroxidase from lignifying Zinnia elegans hypocotyls.

The xylem of 26-day old Zinnia elegans hypocotyls synthesizes lignins derived from coniferyl alcohol and sinapyl alcohol with a G/S ratio of 43/57 in the aryl-glycerol-beta-aryl ether core, as revealed by thioacidolysis. Thioacidolysis of Z. elegans lignins also reveals the presence of coniferyl aldehyde end groups linked by beta-0-4 bonds. Both coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols, as well as coniferyl and sinapyl aldehyde, are substrates of a xylem cell wall-located strongly basic peroxidase, which is capable of oxidizing them in the absence and in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. This peroxidase shows a particular affinity for cinnamyl aldehydes with kappa(M) values in the mu(M) range, and some specificity for syringyl-type phenols. The affinity of this strongly basic peroxidase for cinnamyl alcohols and aldehydes is similar to that shown by the preceding enzymes in the lignin biosynthetic pathway (microsomal 5-hydroxylases and cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase), which also use cinnamyl alcohols and aldehydes as substrates, indicating that the one-way highway of construction of the lignin macromolecule has no metabolic "potholes" in which the lignin building blocks might accumulate. This fact suggests a high degree of metabolic plasticity for this basic peroxidase, which has been widely conserved during the evolution of vascular plants, making it one of the driving forces in the evolution of plant lignin heterogeneity.     

N-acylethanolamines as novel alcohol dehydrogenase 3 substrates

N-Acylethanolamines (NAEs) are members of the fatty acid amide family. The NAEs have been proposed to serve as metabolic precursors to N-acylglycines (NAGs). The sequential oxidation of the NAEs by an alcohol dehydrogenase and an aldehyde dehydrogenase would yield the N-acylglycinals and/or the NAGs. Alcohol dehydrogenase 3 (ADH3) is one enzyme that might catalyze this reaction. To define a potential role for ADH3 in NAE catabolism, we synthesized a set of NAEs and evaluated these as ADH3 substrates. NAEs were oxidized by ADH3, yielding the N-acylglycinals as the product. The (V/K)_app values for the NAEs included here were low relative to cinnamyl alcohol. Our data show that the NAEs can serve as alcohol dehydrogenase substrates.     

Extent of incorporation of hydroxycinnamaldehydes into lignin in cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase-downregulated plants

Down-regulation of cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase leads to an accumulation of cinnamaldehydes available for incorporation into the developing lignin polymer. Using electron spin resonance spectroscopy we have demonstrated that the parent radical of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamaldehyde is generated by peroxidase catalysed oxidation. The extent of radical generation is similar to that of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamyl alcohol and is increased by further aromatic methoxylation. From the distribution of the electron-spin density, it was predicted that the regiochemistry of 4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamaldehyde coupling would be similar to that of the corresponding alcohol, with the possibility of a higher degree of 8-O-4 linkages occurring. These predictions were confirmed by polymerisation studies, which also showed that after radical coupling the alpha,beta-enone structure was regenerated. This suggests that, although the cross-linking and physical properties of cinnamaldeyde rich lignins differ from that of normal lignins, cinnamaldehydes are incorporated into the lignin polymer under the same controlling factors as the cinnamyl alcohols.     

Benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase and benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus. Substrate specificities and inhibition studies.

The apparent Km and maximum velocity values of benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase and benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus were determined for a range of alcohols and aldehydes and the corresponding turnover numbers and specificity constants were calculated. Benzyl alcohol was the most effective alcohol substrate for benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase. Perillyl alcohol was the second most effective substrate, and was the only non-aromatic alcohol oxidized. The other substrates of benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase were all aromatic in nature, with para-substituted derivatives of benzyl alcohol being better substrates than other derivatives. Coniferyl alcohol and cinnamyl alcohol were also substrates. Benzaldehyde was much the most effective substrate for benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II. Benzaldehydes with a single small substituent group in the meta or para position were better substrates than any other benzaldehyde derivatives. Benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II could also oxidize the aliphatic aldehydes hexan-1-al and octan-1-al, although poorly. Benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II was substrate-inhibited by benzaldehyde when the assay concentration exceeded approx. 10 microM. Benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II, but not benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase, exhibited esterase activity with 4-nitrophenyl acetate as substrate. Both benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase and benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II were inhibited by the thiol-blocking reagents iodoacetate, iodoacetamide, 4-chloromercuribenzoate and N-ethylmaleimide. Benzyl alcohol or benzaldehyde respectively protected against these inhibitions. NAD+ also gave some protection. Neither benzyl alcohol dehydrogenase nor benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II was inhibited by the metal-ion-chelating agents EDTA, 2,2'-bipyridyl, pyrazole or 2-phenanthroline. Neither enzyme was inhibited by a range of plausible metabolic inhibitors such as mandelate, phenylglyoxylate, benzoate, succinate, acetyl-CoA, ATP or ADP. Benzaldehyde dehydrogenase II was sensitive to inhibition by several aromatic aldehydes; in particular, ortho-substituted benzaldehydes such as 2-bromo-, 2-chloro- and 2-fluoro-benzaldehydes were potent inhibitors of the enzyme.