嗜线虫致病杆菌血腔毒素Tp40的纯化和特性分析

[目的]嗜线虫致病杆菌是一种昆虫病原线虫共生菌,它能够产生多种杀虫毒素.本研究旨在从嗜线虫致病杆菌Xenorhabdus nematophila HB310菌株的细胞内纯化新的杀虫蛋白毒素,并对其进行基因克隆和序列分析.[方法]应用盐析和制备型非变性凝胶电泳等方法纯化蛋白,再通过对5龄大蜡螟幼虫血腔注射进行活性筛选.对获得的目的蛋白与已知蛋白进行同源分析,克隆出该目的蛋白的基因序列,从而进行相应的基因和氨基酸序列分析.[结果]本研究纯化的Tp40蛋白对大蜡螟LD50为68.54 ng/头,其SDS-PAGE电泳图谱只显示出一条分子量约为42 kDa的多肽.Western印迹分析表明Tp40与已知的Txp40为同源蛋白,并且仅存在于细胞内.编码该蛋白的基因开放读码框全长1107bp(GenBank登录号:EU095326),编码368个氨基酸残基,预测分子量为41.5 kDa,等电点为8.66,与GenBank中的其余13株昆虫病原线虫共生菌所包含的相似基因核苷酸序列及推导的氨基酸序列比较,同源性分别为85%～99%和70%～99%.[结论]Tp40蛋白具有很高的血腔杀虫活性,其基因序列具有较强的保守性,是昆虫病原线虫共生菌复合体杀虫过程中的一种关键因子.     

嗜线虫致病杆菌血腔毒素Tp40对大蜡螟幼虫体内酶活和中肠组织的影响

嗜线虫致病杆菌Xenorhabdus nematophila在侵入到寄主昆虫血腔后能够成功地逃避或抑制寄主昆虫的免疫反应并快速杀死昆虫。为深入了解嗜线虫致病杆菌的杀虫机理,明确关键的致病因子,作者应用盐析和制备型非变性凝胶电泳等方法,从嗜线虫致病杆菌HB310菌株的细胞内分离纯化了一种新的杀虫蛋白——Tp40,该蛋白对大蜡螟Galleria mellonella具有高血腔注射活性,对大蜡螟5龄幼虫的LD₅₀为68.54 ng/头。本文检测了该毒素对大蜡螟幼虫的致病特性,注射Tp40毒素后,大蜡螟幼虫表现出兴奋和痉挛等症状,当以不低于（70±0.02）ng/头的剂量注射Tp40,大蜡螟幼虫均在20 min内死亡,但试虫的体色 、血淋巴的颜色以及血细胞的形态没有发生明显的变化。对大蜡螟体内酶活性的测定结果显示,在注射LD₅₀剂量的Tp40蛋白后,试虫体内羧酸酯酶和乙酰胆碱酯酶活力都明显的高于对照（P<0.05）,而酚氧化酶活力显著低于对照（P<0.05）。对大蜡螟幼虫中肠的组织病理学研究显示：这种42 kDa蛋白能够破坏试虫的中肠组织,导致其肠壁细胞出现排列紊乱、脱落和围食膜消失。据此推测,Tp40与嗜线虫致病杆菌对寄主昆虫的免疫抑制有关,寄主中肠组织可能是其作用靶标之一。     

不同培养基上繁殖的昆虫病原线虫格氏线虫表皮蛋白的差异

表皮蛋白(surface coat proteins, SCPs)是格氏线虫Steinernema glaseri克服寄主免疫系统的关键因素, 能够抑制昆虫免疫反应, 促进线虫的侵染。为了进一步研究表皮蛋白抑制昆虫免疫的作用机理和线虫与寄主间的相互关系, 我们比较分析了不同培养基繁殖的格氏线虫表皮蛋白的差异。我们用人工培养基和大蜡螟Galleria mellonella末龄（5龄）幼虫分别培养得到格氏线虫侵染期幼虫, 利用酒精提取表皮蛋白。SDS-PAGE和非变性PAGE分析显示, 大蜡螟来源的格氏线虫的表皮蛋白具有更多的蛋白条带。体外和体内的裂解血细胞实验表明, 大蜡螟来源的格氏线虫的表皮蛋白表现出强烈的裂解血细胞活性, 而人工培养基来源的格氏线虫的表皮蛋白活力不明显; 且具有裂解血细胞活性的表皮蛋白为诱导表达型蛋白。不同培养基来源的格氏线虫的表皮蛋白组成的差异和活性的不同, 表明格氏线虫表皮蛋白的产生受线虫培养条件影响较大。     

短乳杆菌DM9218肌苷水解酶基因的异源表达及活性检测

目的探讨短乳杆菌DM9218肌苷水解酶基因A0008的异源表达及其对肌苷的分解活性检测。方法克隆来源于短乳杆菌DM9218基因组的肌苷水解酶基因A0008,构建原核表达载体,转入大肠埃希菌BL21诱导重组蛋白表达并纯化,进行体外酶活检测。结果成功构建了肌苷水解酶A0008-pET28a原核表达载体,表达并纯化出重组蛋白,酶活结果显示该重组蛋白具有水解肌苷的能力。结论短乳杆菌DM9218基因A0008可能编码肌苷水解酶并参与DM9218对肌苷的分解。     

管氏肿腿蜂毒液抗凝血酶Ⅲ基因的克隆与表达分析

[目的]克隆和表达管氏肿腿蜂Scleroderma guani毒液抗凝血酶Ⅲ(AntithrombinⅢ)基因SgAT-Ⅲ,为深入研究该毒液基因的生理功能奠定基础.[方法]利用逆转录PCR技术克隆SgAT-Ⅲ基因开放阅读框(Open reading frame,ORF)序列,使用生物信息学软件分析其基因序列结构特征,通过qPCR技术分析其在雌成虫不同组织中的表达模式,采用载体pCzn1对其进行原核表达.[结果]克隆得到SgAT-Ⅲ基因的ORF,长1338 bp,编码446个氨基酸,其中第1-19位氨基端为信号肽,理论分子量49.49 ku,等电点6.23.多序列比对分析表明,SgAT-Ⅲ与蚂蚁AT-Ⅲ具有较高的氨基酸一致性(＞64％),C末端具有serpin蛋白家族典型反应中心环区,含有供靶标蛋白识别的活性裂解位点.系统发育分析表明,SgAT-Ⅲ与膜翅目其他昆虫的AT-Ⅲ亲缘关系较近,且与蚂蚁的AT-Ⅲ聚为一支.qPCR分析表明,SgAT-Ⅲ基因在毒液器官中高表达.SDS-PAGE电泳检测发现,成功表达SgAT-Ⅲ重组蛋白,纯化得到高纯度的重组蛋白.[结论]克隆得到SgAT-Ⅲ基因,其在毒液器官中高表达,纯化得到SgAT-Ⅲ重组蛋白,为进一步研究该毒液基因的生理功能奠定了基础.     

人白介素-38原核表达载体的构建及其蛋白表达、纯化

$目的%构建人白介素(interleukin,IL)-38原核表达载体,原核表达IL-38重组蛋白、纯化及活性分析。[方法]PCR扩增IL-38成熟蛋白编码区,构建IL-38原核表达载体p ET-44-h IL-38,转化BL21(DE3)菌株,用IPTG诱导,表达IL-38重组蛋白,并利用其C末端的组氨酸标签进行镍离子亲和层析纯化,将纯化的重组IL-38作用于脂多糖(LPS)诱导的THP-1细胞,研究纯化IL-38蛋白的生物学活性。[结果]构建的IL-38原核表达载体测序结果与Gen Bank中基因序列一致;IPTG诱导产生的IL-38蛋白主要以可溶性形式存在,纯化的目的蛋白经SDS-PAGE凝胶电泳分析和Western Blot鉴定发现,蛋白纯度可达98%,细胞实验证明纯化的目的蛋白具有较高的生物学活性。[结论]成功构建了IL-38的原核表达载体,制备了具有生物活性的IL-38重组蛋白。     

大蜡螟中类肽聚糖识别蛋白Gm21的鉴定、基因克隆及序列分析

为了调查毒素蛋白免疫下大蜡螟Galleria mellonella L.产生的免疫相关蛋白,采用双向电泳的方法,从大蜡螟血淋巴中鉴定得到一种昆虫肽聚糖识别蛋白Gm21,通过RT-PCR、cDNA末端快速扩增(RACE)技术克隆得到其全长基因,该基因全长cDNA具有完整的编码框,编码211个氨基酸,序列分析表明该蛋白是一种具有潜在酰胺酶活性的S型肽聚糖识别蛋白.本研究中Gm21蛋白在免疫压力下的上调表达及其cDNA序列的克隆,对进一步深入研究昆虫肽聚糖识别蛋白的功能具有重要的意义.     

Modesto株副鸡禽杆菌血凝素的原核表达及其生物活性鉴定

目的：克隆并原核表达Modesto株C型副鸡禽杆菌（Apg）的血凝素（HA）基因,鉴定该重组HA的生物学活性。方法：根据GenBank上已发表的Modesto株Apg的HA基因序列,设计合成了1对特异性引物,克隆ApgHA基因;以Modesto株Apg中提取的细菌DNA为模板,利用PCR扩增ApgHA全长基因（1026bp）,将其克隆到pET-32a（＋）载体上,构建原核表达载体pET—HA,在大肠杆菌BL21（DE3）中表达并纯化重组HA;通过Western印迹及血凝和血凝抑制试验鉴定该重组蛋白的生物学活性。结果：表达并纯化了Apg重组HA,该蛋白可以和C型Apg抗血清特异性结合,并且可以凝集鸡红细胞。结论：构建了Modesto株ApgHA基因的原核表达载体,并表达纯化了ApgHA融合蛋白,该重组HA具有凝集鸡红细胞的活性,为进一步研究ApgHA的免疫功能奠定了基础。     

鸡白细胞介素18成熟蛋白在昆虫细胞/杆状病毒系统中的表达

将编码鸡的白细胞介素 1 8(chickeninterleukine 1 8,ChIL 1 8)成熟蛋白的基因亚克隆到杆状病毒转移载体pMelBacB上 ,构建真核转移载体pMelBacBChIL 1 8,经限制性内切酶消化、ChIL 1 8特异引物PCR鉴定和确证性序列测定 ,证明目的基因正确克隆到载体的预期位点。将纯化的pMelBacBChIL 1 8质粒与杆状病毒DNA(Bac N BlueTM DNA)共转染sf9昆虫细胞 ,经四轮蓝斑筛选纯化 ,获得了重组杆状病毒 ,命名为rBaculovirusChIL 1 8。提取病毒染色体DNA ,经ChIL 1 8特异引物和重组杆状病毒特异引物PCR鉴定 ,证明获得了纯化的重组杆状病毒。用该重组病毒接种sf9昆虫细胞 ,收获接种后不同时间的细胞进行SDS PAGE电泳。结果表明ChIL 1 8基因在昆虫细胞中获得了表达 ,表达的重组蛋白分子量约为 2 3kDa。应用在大肠杆菌原核表达系统中表达的重组蛋白制备的兔抗ChIL 1 8多克隆抗体进行Westernblot分析 ,表明本研究真核系统表达的ChIL 1 8成熟蛋白和前期原核系统表达的ChIL 1 8成熟蛋白均具有生物学活性。     

光杆菌(NLK-1) Txp40毒蛋白基因克隆表达及预测

【背景】光杆菌存在于嗜菌异小杆线虫肠道内,并与其互惠共生,其能够产生多种高效、广谱的杀虫蛋白及毒素,是近年来继苏云金芽胞杆菌(Bt)之后挖掘新型杀虫蛋白及杀虫基因的热点研究对象。【目的】克隆Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)Txp40毒蛋白基因,分析其与已知其他同属共生菌相似毒蛋白在基因序列、蛋白组成、理化性质及构象的区别,构建原核表达载体并转化大肠杆菌进行诱导表达,初步测定其杀虫活性。【方法】采用侵染的大蜡螟幼虫血腔直接分离初生型共生细菌,根据已报道的序列经比对分析设计引物,扩增目的基因,连接克隆质粒p MD19-T后测序,利用Expasy在线Prot Param tool预测其基本理化特性参数,NPS@-Network Protein Sequence Analysis在线工具进行二级结构预测。通过克隆、酶切、连接目的基因在p ET28a原核表达载体上,转化大肠杆菌BL21中,利用蓝白斑筛选阳性克隆,测序验证后进行IPTG诱导表达;菌体超声破碎离心,以毒蛋白含量较高的上清溶液对大蜡螟幼虫进行饲喂和血腔注射毒性测定。【结果】Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)Txp40毒蛋白基因全长为1 008 bp,与已知相关基因的序列相似性为94%,与已知40 k D相关蛋白的氨基酸相似性达到99%,分子量37.9 k D,p I 8.37,二级结构预测表明其主要由α螺旋35.71%,无规卷曲54.46%,延伸链9.52%组成,跨膜区域与已知蛋白基本相似,克隆构建了原核表达载体p ET28a-(NLK-1)Txp40,SDS-PAGE分析其在38 k D处有特异条带,蛋白分子量与预测值基本一致,且表达相对单一,表达量较高。Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)Txp40蛋白对大蜡螟幼虫具有较高的血腔毒性,大蜡螟幼虫注射5μL蛋白粗提液剂量下48 h内致死率达100%,未发现胃毒活性。【结论】获得Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)Txp40毒蛋白基因,比对、分析了与已知基因在序列组成、蛋白基本理化性质和二级结构的异同,构建了原核表达载体并成功诱导表达,验证了Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)Txp40毒蛋白具有较高的大蜡螟幼虫血腔毒性,为进一步发掘Photorhabdus luminescens(NLK-1)中的杀虫功能基因和蛋白奠定基础。     

Phenotypic variation and host interactions of Xenorhabdus bovienii SS-2004, the entomopathogenic symbiont of Steinernema jollieti nematodes

Xenorhabdus bovienii (SS-2004) bacteria reside in the intestine of the infective-juvenile (IJ) stage of the entomopathogenic nematode, Steinernema jollieti. The recent sequencing of the X. bovienii genome facilitates its use as a model to understand host - symbiont interactions. To provide a biological foundation for such studies, we characterized X. bovienii in vitro and host interaction phenotypes. Within the nematode host X. bovienii was contained within a membrane bound envelope that also enclosed the nematode-derived intravesicular structure. Steinernema jollieti nematodes cultivated on mixed lawns of X. bovienii expressing green or DsRed fluorescent proteins were predominantly colonized by one or the other strain, suggesting the colonizing population is founded by a few cells. Xenorhabdus bovienii exhibits phenotypic variation between orange-pigmented primary form and cream-pigmented secondary form. Each form can colonize IJ nematodes when cultured in vitro on agar. However, IJs did not develop or emerge from Galleria mellonella insects infected with secondary form. Unlike primary-form infected insects that were soft and flexible, secondary-form infected insects retained a rigid exoskeleton structure. Xenorhabdus bovienii primary and secondary form isolates are virulent towards Manduca sexta and several other insects. However, primary form stocks present attenuated virulence, suggesting that X. bovienii, like Xenorhabdus nematophila may undergo virulence modulation.     

Tn5-induced Xenorhabdus bovienii lecithinase mutants demonstrate reduced virulence for Galleria mellonella larvae

A derivative of Tn5 was used to construct a variety of stable insertion mutations in the entomopathogenic bacterium, Xenorhabdus bovienii T228/1. Mutants which had altered expression of Congo Red binding ability, ampicillin resistance, haemolytic activity and lecithinase were isolated. Isolates with altered lecithinase activity had either lost ability to produce this enzyme or showed reduced expression. The role of lecithinase in pathogenesis of X. bovienii T228/1 for Galleria mellonella larvae was examined by LD₅₀ analysis. Maximum killing of G. mellonella was observed at 72 h post infection for both the wild-type parent strain and a lecithinase mutant 34(45). However, the LD₅₀ value for the wild-type parent strain (8·7 cells per larva) was significantly less than that calculated for the lecithinase mutant (35·5 cells per larva). The data suggested that although lecithinase is a virulence factor produced by X. bovienii , lecithinase activity alone is not sufficient for killing of G. mellonella larvae.     

Bacterial formyl peptides affect the innate cellular antimicrobial responses of larval Galleria mellonella (Insecta: Lepidoptera)

The non-self cellular (hemocytic) responses of Galleria mellonella larvae, including the attachment to slides and the removal of the bacteria Xenorhabdus nematophila and Bacillus subtilis from the hemolymph, were affected by N-formyl peptides. Both N-formyl methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (fMLF) and the ester derivative decreased hemocyte adhesion in vitro, and both elevated hemocyte counts and suppressed the removal of both X. nematophila and B. subtilis from the hemolymph in vivo. The amide derivative and the antagonist tertiary-butoxy-carbonyl-methionyl-leucyl-phenylalanine (tBOC) increased hemocyte attachment to glass. The fMLF suppressed protein discharge from monolayers of granular cells with and without bacterial stimulation, while tBOC stimulated protein discharge. The peptide tBOC offset the effects of fMLF in vitro and in vivo. This is the first report implying the existence of formyl peptide receptors on insect hemocytes in which the compounds fMLF and tBOC inhibited and activated hemocyte activity, respectively.     

Gnotobiological study of infective juveniles and symbionts of Steinernema scapterisci: A model to clarify the concept of the natural occurrence of monoxenic associations in entomopathogenic nematodes.

Gnotobiology of Steinernema scapterisci and bacteriological study of its symbiont confirmed that this nematode harbors a symbiotic species of Xenorhabdus, as do other Steinermena species. Based on phenotypic and 16S rDNA data, this Xenorhabdus strain UY61 could be distinguished from other Xenorhabdus species. Bacteria reported previously as being associated with this nematode and belonging to several other genera were probably contaminating bacteria located in the intercuticular space of the infective juveniles (IJs). These bacteria were detrimental to nematode reproduction in Galleria mellonella. Axenic S. scapterisci and its symbiont Xenorhabdus strain UY61 alone were not pathogenic to G. mellonella. The combination of both partners reestablished the pathogenicity of the complex toward G. mellonella. This combination also gave the best yields of IJs when produced in this insect and in vitro production on artificial diet.     

Txp40, a ubiquitous insecticidal toxin protein from Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria

Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus are gram-negative bacteria that produce a range of proteins that are toxic to insects. We recently identified a novel 42-kDa protein from Xenorhabdus nematophila that was lethal to the larvae of insects such as Galleria mellonella and Helicoverpa armigera when it was injected at doses of 30 to 40 ng/g larvae. In the present work, the toxin gene txp40 was identified in another 59 strains of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus, indicating that it is both highly conserved and widespread among these bacteria. Recombinant toxin protein was shown to be active against a variety of insect species by direct injection into the larvae of the lepidopteran species G. mellonella, H. armigera, and Plodia interpunctella and the dipteran species Lucilia cuprina. The protein exhibited significant cytotoxicity against two dipteran cell lines and two lepidopteran cell lines but not against a mammalian cell line. Histological data from H. armigera larvae into which the toxin was injected suggested that the primary site of action of the toxin is the midgut, although some damage to the fat body was also observed.     

A novel role for an insect apolipoprotein (apolipophorin III) in beta-1,3-glucan pattern recognition and cellular encapsulation reactions

Lipoproteins and molecules for pattern recognition are centrally important in the innate immune response of both vertebrates and invertebrates. Mammalian apolipoproteins such as apolipoprotein E (apoE) are involved in LPS detoxification, phagocytosis, and possibly pattern recognition. The multifunctional insect protein, apolipophorin III (apoLp-III), is homologous to apoE. In this study we describe novel roles for apoLp-III in pattern recognition and multicellular encapsulation reactions in the innate immune response, which may be of direct relevance to mammalian systems. It is known that apoLp-III stimulates antimicrobial peptide production in insect blood, enhances phagocytosis by insect blood cells (hemocytes), and binds and detoxifies LPS and lipoteichoic acid. In the present study we show that apoLp-III from the greater wax moth, Galleria mellonella, also binds to fungal conidia and beta-1,3-glucan and therefore may act as a pattern recognition molecule for multiple microbial and parasitic invaders. This protein also stimulates increases in cellular encapsulation of nonself particles by the blood cells and exerts shorter term, time-dependent, modulatory effects on cell attachment and spreading. All these responses are dose dependent, occur within physiological levels, and, with the notable exception of beta-glucan binding, are only observed with the lipid-associated form of apoLp-III. Preliminary studies also established a beneficial role for apoLp-III in the in vivo response to an entomopathogenic fungus. These data suggest a wide range of immune functions for a multiple specificity pattern recognition molecule and may provide a useful model for identifying further potential roles for homologous proteins in mammalian immunology, particularly in terms of fungal infections, pneumoconiosis, and granulomatous reactions.     

Experimental evidence of metabolic disturbance in the white shrimp Penaeus vannamei induced by the Infectious Hypodermal and Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus (IHHNV)

Xenorhabdus budapestensis can produce a variety of proteins that help this bacterium and its mutualistic nematode vector kill the host insect. In this report, we purified one protein fraction from the intracellular extract of X. budapestensis D43, which was designated HIP57. By injection, HIP57 caused Galleria mellonella larval bodies to blacken and die with an LD(50) of 206.81 ng/larva. Analyzes of HIP57 by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis showed that this protein was a single spot on the gel with a molecular weight of 57 kDa and a pI of ～5. Sequencing and bioinformatic analysis suggested that the HIP57 toxin was homologous to GroEL. GroEL has been accepted as molecule chaperon; however, our research revealed that HIP57 (GroEL) possesses another novel function as an insecticide. A GroEL phylogenetic tree defined the relationship among the related species of mutualistic bacteria (Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus) from the entomopathogenic nematodes and the evolution within the family Enterobacteriaceae. Thus, GroEL could be a complement to 16S rDNA for studying the molecular phylogenies of the family Enterobacteriaceae. Phenoloxidase (PO) activity analysis of G. mellonella larvae injected with HIP57 suggested that the toxin activates the PO cascade, which provides an extensive defense reaction that potentially responsible for G. mellonella larval death.     

Relationship between the successful infection by entomopathogenic nematodes and the host immune response

Reproduction of entomopathogenic nematodes requires that they escape recognition by a host's immune system or that they have mechanisms to escape encapsulation and melanization. We investigated the immune responses of larvae for the greater wax moth (Galleria mellonella), tobacco hornworm (Manduca sexta), Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica), northern masked chafer (Cyclocephala borealis), oriental beetle (Exomala orientalis) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus), challenged with infective juveniles from different species and strains of entomopathogenic nematodes. The in vivo immune responses of hosts were correlated with nematode specificity and survival found by infection assays. In P. japonica, 45% of injected infective juveniles from Steinernema glaseri NC strain survived; whereas the hemocytes from the beetle strongly encapsulated and melanized the Heterorhabditis bacteriophora HP88 strain, S. glaseri FL strain, Steinernema scarabaei and Steinernema feltiae. Overall, H. bacteriophora was intensively melanized in resistant insect species (E. orientalis, P. japonica and C. borealis) and had the least ability to escape the host immune response. Steinernema glaseri NC strain suppressed the immune responses in susceptible hosts (M. sexta, E. orientalis and P. japonica), whereas S. glaseri FL strain was less successful. Using an in vitro assay, we found that hemocytes from G. mellonella, P. japonica, M. sexta and A. domestica recognized both nematode species quickly. However, many S. glaseri in M. sexta and H. bacteriophora in G. mellonella escaped from hemocyte encapsulation by 24h. These data indicate that, while host recognition underlies some of the differences between resistant and susceptible host species, escape from encapsulation following recognition can also allow successful infection. Co-injected surface-coat proteins from S. glaseri did not protect H. bacteriophora in M. sexta but did protect H. bacteriophora in E. orientalis larva; therefore, surface coat proteins do not universally convey host susceptibility. Comparisons of surface coat proteins by native and SDS-PAGE demonstrated different protein compositions between H. bacteriophora and S. glaseri and between the two strains of S. glaseri.     

Effects of gibberellic acid on hemocytes of Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The impacts of different doses of the plant growth regulator gibberellic acid (GA(3)) in diet on the number of total and differential hemocytes, frequency of apoptotic, and necrotic hemocytes, mitotic indices, encapsulation, and melanization responses were investigated using the greater wax moth Galleria mellonella L. (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) larvae. Total hemocyte counts increased in G. mellonella larvae at all treatment doses whereas GA(3) application had no effect on the number of different hemocyte types. The occurrence of apoptosis, necrosis and mitotic indices in GA(3) treated and untreated last instars were detected by acridine orange or ethidium bromide double staining by fluorescence microscopy. While the ratio of necrotic hemocytes increased at all GA(3) treatments, that of late apoptotic cells was only higher at doses >200 ppm when compared with untreated larvae. The percentage of mitotic index also increased at 5,000 ppm. Positively charged DEAE Sephadex A-25 beads were used for analysis of the levels of encapsulation and melanization in GA(3) treated G. mellonella larvae. At four and 24 h posttreatments with Sephadex A-25 bead injection, insects were dissected under a stereomicroscope. Encapsulation rates of larval hemocytes were dependent on the extent of encapsulation and time but not treatment groups. While the extent of melanization of hemocytes showed differences related to time, in general, a decrease was observed at all doses of GA(3) treated larvae at 24 h. We suggest that GA(3) treatment negatively affects hemocyte physiology and cell immune responses inducing cells to die by necrosis and apoptosis in G. mellonella larvae.