Intra and intertribal genetic variation within a linguistic group: The Ge-speaking Indians of Brazil

A total of 562 individuals living in four villages of two Brazilian Indian tribes (Cayapo and Krahó) was studied in relation to blood groups ABO, MNSs, P, Rh, Lewis, Duffy, Kidd and Diego; haptoglobin, Gc, acid phosphatase and phosphoglucomutase types. These results were compared with those obtained previously among the Xavante, and the inhabitants of three other Cayapo villages, all of whom speak Ge languages; the ranges in gene frequencies observed in a representative series of South American Indians from all over the continent were also compiled. The Ge Indians are characterized by low frequencies ofR^z, medium frequencies ofR¹,R², R⁰, orr,Jk^a andPGM¹₁, and high frequencies ofGc² andACP^A when compared with other South American tribes. Genetic distance analyses based on six loci indicate that the intratribal variability observed among Cayapo is of the same order of magnitude as those obtained among the Xavante and Krahó, being much less pronounced than those observed among the Yanomama and Makiritare. The intertribal differences within this linguistic group are much less pronounced than those encountered among tribes that speak more differentiated languages.     

New studies on the esterase D polymorphism in South American Indians

A total of 2, 490 South American Indians affiliated with 10 tribes were studied for esterases A₁, A₂, A₃, B, D, and carbonic anhydrases 1 and 2. Wide variation was observed in the prevalence of ESD¹, the extreme values being 0. 44, encountered among the Xikrin, and 0. 95, found among the Cashinawa. Seven of the 10 frequencies fell within the interval of 0. 66–0. 87. These results were integrated with those of earlier surveys. In a general way we observe lower values in the eastern and Atlantic Coast groups, but this is mainly due to the low frequencies found among the Gê tribes and the Caingang, who speak a language which has many affinities with Gê. High prevalences were observed among the tropical forest tribes. A fair amount of intervillage, intratribal variation was found among the Ticuna and Caingang. No variability was detected in the A₁, A₂, A₃, B esterases. In the carbonic anhydrases we confirmed the presence of a “private polymorphism” among the Baniwa.     

The caingang revisited: Blood genetics and anthropometry

A total of 248 individuals belonging to four populations of Caingang Indians from southern Brazil were stuided in relation to 23 genetic systems that are expressed in blood and one manifested on saliva. These results were compared with those obtained in 400 members of these same communities that were subjected to 11 body measurements. Nine polymorphic loci (MNSs, P, Rh, Duffy, Diego, Hp, PGM₁, ESD, and Gc) were chosen for the calculation of the genetic distances between the four populations, which were compared with Mahalanobis's D² differences. The two sets of values proved to be intercorrelated but neither showed a relationship with the geographic distances separating the four communities. The Caingang were previously classified linguistically as Gê, and they show several affinities with the Gê tribes, both when hematological, and morphological, characteristics are considered. A variant PGD phenotype is also described, showing a curious storage effect.     

Transferrin: Evidence for two common subtypes of the TfC allele

Summary Evidence is presented for an extended polymorphism of human transferrin (Tf). Three common phenotypes were observed among Tf^C individuals after isoelectric focusing of sera on polyacrylamide gels. They are explained in terms of two subtypes of the Tf^c allele, tentatively designated Tf^C1 and Tf^C2. The distribution of the phenotypes Tf C1, C2-1, and C2 provides a good fit to the Hardy-Weinberg equation. In our population sample (n=942) the following frequencies were calculated: Tf^C1=0.8195, Tf^C2=0.1720, Tf^B2=0.0064, Tf^B1–2=0.0016, and Tf^D1=0.0005. Family studies (n=112) indicate an autosomal codominant way of inheritance. The observed subheterogeneity is detectable in purified transferrin after isofocusing and subsequent immunofixation. The subtypes are still present after treatment of sera with neuraminidase.     

Transferrin C subtyping in Malaysians and in Indonesians from North Sumatra

Summary Malays, Chinese, and Indians from Peninsular Malaysia; Ibans and Bidayuh from Sarawak State; Kadazans from Sabah State, Northern Borneo; and Bataks, Minangkabau, and Javanese from North Sumatra, Indonesia, were subtyped for transferrin C by polyacrylamide gel isoelectric focusing. All nine populations studied are polymorphic for two alleles, Tf^C1 and Tf^C2. Tf^C3 was polymorphic in six populations and present as a rare variant in the other three. The frequency of Tf^C1 ranged from 0.855 in Bidayuh to 0.711 in Javanese, that of Tf^C2 from 0.231 in Indians to 0.113 in Bidayuh, and that of Tf^C3 from 0.030 in Javanese and Chinese to 0.008 in Bidayuh. Tf^Dchi is polymorphic in all the populations that we studied except in Minangkabau, in whom it is present as a rare variant, and in Indians, in whom it is absent.     

Human transferrin (Tf) and group-specific component (Gc) subtypes in Tunisia

Summary Simultaneous subtyping of two genetic markers—group-specific component (Gc) and transferrin (Tf)—by electrofocusing enabled us to compute the following gene frequencies for the Tunisian population: Gc ^IS .0.525; Gc ^IF , 0.260; Gc ², 0.215; Tf ^CI , 0.770; Tf ^C2 , 0.215; Tf ^D1 , 0.015.The frequencies of Tf ^D , Tf ^C2 , and Gc ¹ are higher than those found in Caucasoid populations and can be explained by Negroid contribution. A selective advantage related to the metabolic role of this vitamin D-binding protein does not seem very likely for any particular Gc type or subtype. It is postulated that the differences in the frequencies of the Gc alleles might be related to selective advantage for genes belonging to other genetic systems originally closely linked to either Gc ¹ or to Gc ² alleles.This work was supported in part by the Faculté de Pharmacie et de Médecine Dentaire of Monastir and by a grant from the Ambassade de France in Tunisia     

Gc subtypes in the middle east: Report on an Arab Moslem population from Israel

Gc subtypes were determined by isoelectrofocusing and immunofixation on 342 blood samples from an Arab Moslem population in Israel. Observed allele frequencies were: Gc^1F 0.2120, Gc^1S 0.6023, and Gc² 0.1857. Those are similar to formerly reported frequency data for other Middle Eastern populations. A discriminant analysis, performed on data from 35 populations, resulted in a satisfactory classification of population groups related through geographic and racial origin.     

Esterase D in South American Indians.

Significant variation in the frequency of Esterase D isoenzymes was found in 1,070 individuals belonging to eight South American Indian tribes. The Es D1 allele shows frequencies varying from .36 to 1. A region of low prevalence of this allele seems to exist in northern Brazil, involving the Parakanan, Gorotire, and Krahó. The intratribal variation observed in eight Yanomama villages located in Brazil was not exceptional.     

The distribution of haptoglobin and transferrin types in northeast New Guinea

This paper reports haptoglobin testing of 2,029 serum specimens and transferrin typing of 1,911 specimens obtained from villages representing a wide range of environments and cultures in the Markham River Valley region of northeast New Guinea. The haptoglobin gene frequencies ranged from 90.0% to 61.4% for Hp¹ and the frequency of the transferring gene Tf^c ranged from 94.9% to 71.5%. Other transferrin genes present were Tf^D1 and, in low frequency, Tf^{B Lae}. Overall, no apparent correlations were found between the frequencies of these genes and altitudes, languages or distances of the villages studied up the valley. It was felt that the arguments put forward earlier emphasizing the role of genetic drift in determining gene distribution in New Guinea could be also applied to explain the distribution of the haptoglobin and transferrin genes in the Markham River Valley.     

Distribution of the group specific (Gc) serum component in the populations of the Markham Valley, New Guinea

The distribution of the Gc phenotypes was determined by immunoelectrophoresis amongst 486 inhabitants of nine villages of the Markham River Valley of New Guinea. The overall gene frequencies were Gc¹, 0.538; Gc², 0.351; Gc^Aborigine, 0.112. Gc^Aborigine occurred in all the villages, its frequency ranging from 0.041 to 0.187. The Gc² gene frequency also varied widely ranging from 0.167 to 0.491. No correlation could be found between altitude and the Gc distribution and there was an overlap in the gene frequencies between the Austronesian and non-Austronesian-speaking villages.     

Intra- and inter-tribal genetic variability in South American Indians

A review was made of all studies to date concerning the genetic polymorphisms of South American Indians. The observed inter-tribal variability was then compared with the intra-tribal variation encountered in seven Caingang and three Xavante Indian communities. The differing pattern of genetic variability observed within these two tribes was afterwards correlated with the information available about their breeding structure.     

The influence of cultural factors on the demography and pattern of gene flow from the Makiritare to the Yanomama Indians

A single village of Yanomama Indians was found to have frequencies of Di^a of 0.06 and of Ap^a of 0.08, in contrast to 40 other villages whereDi^a was absent and Ap^a quite rare. The source of these genes was identified as a village of Makiritare Indians, but the two allele frequencies were approximately the same or even higher in the Yanomama than in the Makiritare village. Demographic, social and cultural parameters affecting marriage and reproduction in the two tribes explain this. Genealogical relationships and informants' accounts collected in the field, when viewed against the traditional marriage practices, reproductive advantages of headmen, and differential treatment of captured women, indicate that the mating and reproduction parameters inherent in tribal social organization of this kind constitute an essential part of the explanation of the genetic findings. It is argued that mating systems of this sort are such that the probability of a new gene introduced by a captive surviving in the recipient population is a function of the sex of the initial carrier. The implications for tribalization and potentially radical changes in allele frequencies are briefly explored by considering aspects of settlement pattern and population fissioning known to characterize the tribes in question. Finally, it is shown that genetic sampling from a single location can and does result in unrepresentative allele frequencies when this single sample is taken to characterize the tribe as a whole.     

Isoelectric focusing of rare transferrin (Tf) variants and common TfC subtypes

Summary Transferrin^C (Tf^C) subtypes were determined by isoelectric focusing (PAGIF) on samples from 90 carriers of the Tf^B and Tf^D alleles. In all cases of CB and CD heterozygotes only one of the two common subtypes of the Tf^C allele, Tf^C1 or Tf^C2, was observed. This is considered strong support for the hypothesis of two common alleles at the Tf locus. The different isofocusing patterns of rare B and D variants are compared with the results obtained after agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE).     

Transferrins,haptoglobins, and ceruloplasmins among tribal groups of Madagascar

Transferrin phenotypes of 403 Malagasy were determined by autoradiography after electrophoresis of plasma or serum. Three phenotypes, Tf C, Tf CD, and Tf D, were found. The frequency of Tf^D was 0.051 in the total sample, 0.041 in tribes of the Madagascar plateau, and 0.075 in tribes of the coastal and lowland regions. Haptoglobin phenotypes of 402 Malagasy were determined. The frequency of Hp¹ was 0.41 in the total sample, 0.38 in tribes of the plateau, and 0.49 in coastal-lowland tribes. There is a significant difference in the frequency of Hp¹ between the tribes of the plateau and those of the coastal and lowland regions. This confirms earlier observations of significant differences in frequencies of haptoglobins and hemoglobin S. Plasma or serum samples from 405 Malagasy were examined by electrophoresis to determine ceruloplasmin phenotypes. Seven distinct ceruloplasmin bands were observed. These were A, B, Galveston, Bridgeport, New Haven, Tananarive, and X, the last two described for the first time. Ten different phenotypes composed of one or two of the bands were observed. The frequency of the allele for ceruloplasmin B (CpB) was 0.78 in the total sample, 0.73 in tribes of the plateau, and 0.92 in coastal and lowland tribes. There is a significant difference in the frequency of this allele in the two major tribal groups, and this provides additional evidence of genetic differences between the peoples of the plateau and those of the coast and lowland regions of Madagascar.     

Hemoglobin types of Brazilian Indians

Starch gel and paper electrophoresis determinations were performed in the bloods of 532 Indians and 123 Mestizos. The individuals tested belong to the Aweikoma, Caingang, Guarani, Xavante and Cayapo tribes and live in several places in Southern, Central and Northern Brazil. No abnormal types were observed in the putatively “pure blood” individuals; among the Mestizos only one AS person was found. Data concerning the hemoglobin types of Indians living in eight other South American countries are also reviewed.     

Gc types in one Indian group and one Mestizo Mexican group

Summary The distribution of Gc types was investigated in an Indian group residing in Cuetzalan, Puebla, and in a Mestizo group from Mexico City. Gc¹ and Gc² gene frequencies were 0.862 and 0.138 in Cuetzalan, and 0.858 and 0.142 in Mexico City. These figures are similar to those obtained by other authors in one Northeastern Mexican City. A literature review showed that there appears to be a pattern of high Gc²-frequency in most Brazilian Indians (above 0.3) in contrast to a low frequency (below 0.2) in most other Amerindian groups studied.     

The genetic structure of a tribal population, the Yanomama indians. VII. Anthropometric differences among Yanomama villages

Anthropometric data on 12 variables in 19 villages of the Yanomama Indians demonstrate significant heterogeneity in physique among villages of this tribe. Mahalanobis' distances (D²) calculated from the data lead to the tentative conclusion of a general correspondence between anthropometric and geographic distances separating villages. The mean stature of the Yanomama is smaller than that of most other South American tribes which have been measured, and the Yanomama are genetically distinct from the other small Indians as shown by genetic distances based on allele frequencies for a variety of genetic markers. Since some subjects were measured more than once by the same and by different observers, it was possible to calculate approximate estimates of variance within and between observers. Univariate analysis indicates that face height and nose height are especially susceptible to systematic differences in technique between observers. The variances obtained in this field study compare favorably with those of some classical laboratory studies described in the literature. It was found that measurement error nevertheless probably makes a substantial contribution to anthropometric distance between villages. The median error variance as a fraction of that of Herskovits ('30) is 0.62 for the seven measurements in common with this study. The median value of the error variance for the 12 variables in this study is between 16% and 17% of the total variance.     

Dermatoglyphics of Apache and Navajo Indians

The Apaches and Navajos, both members of the Athapascan Family, have lived in the Southwest for several hundred years. Finger and palmar dermatoglyphics were collected from 94 Apaches and 102 Navajos. Both tribes exhibited characteristics similar to those generally reported for American Indians, such as, high whorl frequencies, high total ridge counts, longitudinal alignment of main lines, and high frequencies of absent C lines. Absence of significant intertribal differences indicates close genetic relationship between these tribes.     

Finger and palmar dermatoglyphics in Seminole Indians of Florida

Hand prints of 146 Florida Seminoles were obtained at the Brighton, Big Cypress and Dania reservations and at the Indian Agency in Dania. Comparisons with other tribes of North American Indians (Comanche, Arapahoe, Navaho, Hopi and Pueblo) reveal similarities with respect to fingerprint indices, frequencies of patterns in all palmar areas, and transverseness of palmar ridges. Comparisons of Seminoles and other North American tribes with the Mayans of southern Mexico and Guatamala show striking differences in pattern frequencies in the thenar/first interdigital area of the palm. Among North American Indians, the frequency varies from 18.49% among Seminoles to 28.5% among Navahoes, whereas all Mayan tribes which have been studied range between 40 and 50%. Pattern frequencies are higher in the thenar/first interdigital area than in the hypothenar area among all Amerindians who have been tested. This trend is the reverse of that found in other racial groups. North, Central and South American Indians are similar with respect to relatively high finger pattern indices, low frequencies of patterns in the hypothenar area, low frequencies of accessory triradii in the interdigital areas and moderately transverse palmar ridges.