Biochar co-compost improves nitrogen retention and reduces carbon emissions in a winter wheat cropping system

Organic amendments, such as compost and biochar, mitigate the environmental burdens associated with wasting organic resources and close nutrient loops by capturing, transforming, and resupplying nutrients to soils. While compost or biochar application to soil can enhance an agroecosystem's capacity to store carbon and produce food, there have been few field studies investigating the agroecological impacts of amending soil with biochar co-compost, produced through the composting of nitrogen-rich organic material, such as manure, with carbon-rich biochar. Here, we examine the impact of biochar co-compost on soil properties and processes by conducting a field study in which we compare the environmental and agronomic impacts associated with the amendment of either dairy manure co-composted with biochar, dairy manure compost, or biochar to soils in a winter wheat cropping system. Organic amendments were applied at equivalent C rates (8 Mg C ha⁻¹). We found that all three treatments significantly increased soil water holding capacity and total plant biomass relative to the no-amendment control. Soils amended with biochar or biochar co-compost resulted in significantly less greenhouse gas emissions than the compost or control soils. Biochar co-compost also resulted in a significant reduction in nutrient leaching relative to the application of biochar alone or compost alone. Our results suggest that biochar co-composting could optimize organic resource recycling for climate change mitigation and agricultural productivity while minimizing nutrient losses from agroecosystems.     

野生秀丽四照花种子生物学特性及萌发研究

对野生秀丽四照花(Cornus hongkongensis subsp. elegans)种子的生物学特性进行观察测定,比较变温、低温层积、化学处理对种子萌发的影响。结果表明,秀丽四照花种子千粒重76.91 g,长5.81 mm、宽5.10 mm、厚3.99 mm。种子在整个试验过程中吸水率低于8%,说明有吸水性障碍的坚硬种皮抑制了种子萌发。变温条件下,温差较大的30℃/15℃处理对秀丽四照花种子萌发有较好的促进作用,萌发时滞短,萌发率和发芽势较高。秀丽四照花种子经30%NaOH浸泡10 min,可明显缩短萌发时间,但4℃低温层积处理对种子萌发没有显著效果。     

Influence of seed head-attacking biological control agents on spotted knapweed reproductive potential in western Montana over a 30-year period

Five insect biological control agents that attack flower heads of spotted knapweed, Centaurea stoebe L. subsp. micranthos (Gugler) Hayek, became established in western Montana between 1973 and 1992. In a controlled field experiment in 2006, seed-head insects reduced spotted knapweed seed production per seed head by 84.4%. The seed production at two sites in western Montana where these biological control agents were well established was 91.6-93.8% lower in 2004-2005 than 1974-1975, whereas the number of seed heads per square meter was 70.7% lower, and the reproductive potential (seeds/m(2)) was 95.9-99.0% lower. The average seed bank in 2005 at four sites containing robust spotted knapweed populations was 281 seeds/m(2) compared with 19 seeds/m(2) at four sites where knapweed density has declined. Seed bank densities were much higher at sites in central Montana (4,218 seeds/m(2)), where the insects have been established for a shorter period. Urophora affinis Frauenfeld was the most abundant species at eight study sites, infesting 66.7% of the seed heads, followed by a 47.3% infestation by Larinus minutus Gyllenhal and L. obtusus Gyllenhal. From 1974 to 1985, Urophora spp. apparently reduced the number of seeds per seed head by 34.5-46.9%; the addition of Larinus spp. further reduced seed numbers 84.2-90.5% by 2005. Path analysis indicated that both Larinus spp. and U. affinis contributed significantly to reduction of seed production over the 30-yr period. Spotted knapweed density may not decrease significantly until the seed bank falls below a critical threshold.     

五蕊寄生种子萌发特性

采用室内与野外实验相结合的方法,对五蕊寄生（Dendrophthoe pentandra）种子萌发特性以及鸟类消化过程对其种子萌发的影响进行研究。结果表明：五蕊寄生种子对温度和光照较敏感,与黑暗条件相比,光照能显著提高种子的萌发率;20℃为种子萌发的最适温度,萌发率达53.8%,高温35℃及低温10℃均不利于种子萌发。研究发现纯色啄花鸟（Dicaeum concolor）是该植物的主要食果者,种子外的果肉不是限制种子萌发的关键因素,人为去除果肉并不能提高种子的萌发率,但可缩短种子萌发的时间,果实通过纯色啄花鸟类肠道消化后,随着粪便排出的种子萌发率显著提高（达69%）,暗示纯色啄花鸟在五蕊寄生的种子萌发过程中具有重要的作用。     

不同海拔与母树大小对水青树种子生物学特性的影响

通过对美姑大风顶自然保护区不同海拔和不同胸径水青树(Tetracentron sinense)种子的干重、饱满度、形态特征及萌发特性进行观测,分析了海拔高度和母树大小对水青树种子生物学特性的影响。结果表明,随着海拔高度的增加,水青树种子的干重和饱满度先增加后减小,而萌发率、发芽势、活力指数和形态特征却随海拔的升高而减小;除干重外,水青树种子的其他生物学特性均与海拔之间呈极显著相关。随着胸径的增大,水青树种子的生物学特征均表现出先增加后减小的趋势。除种子的宽和厚与胸径之间具有极显著的相关性外,其他的生物学特征与胸径之间的相关性不显著。结果显示:(1)海拔是影响水青树种子生物学特性的主要生态因子之一;(2)母树大小对水青树种子的生物学特性影响较小;(3)水青树生殖期可分为四个时期,其中30~40 cm径级处于生殖高峰期。     

Movement and modelling of buried seed of the invasive perennial Chrysanthemoides monilifera in coastal dunes and biological control

Movement in the soil of seeds of the invasive shrub Chrysanthemoides monilifera was studied in relation to the success of proposed biological control treatments. Marked seeds were buried at depths from 0 to 6 cm and recovered after periods of 3–24 months. Survival declined with time but was higher for more deeply buried seeds. The average movement of seeds was 0.7 cm per year downwards which enhances their survival but also tends to remove them from the zone of highest likelihood of germination. A model was constructed to predict the size of the pool of potentially germinable seed under treatments including pre-dispersal predation and burning. It indicated that satisfactory control with a pre-dispersal seed predator will be achieved only if there is a < 95% reduction in seed-fall to the soil surface over the entire year. A control agent that is 100% effective for most of the year will probably be unsatisfactory if its rate of predation drops to > 90% for a part of the year (e.g. during winter when seed-fall is abundant). The effectiveness of the control could be enhanced by using intense fires to reduce the soil seed-pool and to kill many of the mature shrubs. However, the feasibility of this combination of treatments will depend on the reaction of the biological control agent to fire.     

Storage of ethyl methanesulphonate-treated barley seeds with low moisture contents

Barley seeds were treated with ethyl methanesulphonate (EMS) for 3 h at 25° C, washed with tap water for 24 h at 25° C, redried at 40° C to different moisture contents below 15% and stored at 25° C in desiccators or in sealed plastic bags. The criteria used for expressing the effect of storage were the M₁ seedling height and the frequency of chromosomal aberrations. With 14·9% seed moisture a strong increase of biological injury occurred in the course of a 2-week storage, while storage of seeds having an initial moisture content of 11·7% led to a significant increase of injury only after 6 weeks. Superdry EMS-treated seeds with 5% or less moisture can be stored at 25° C without any changes in the biological effects. A method is recommended to avoid the EMS-storage effects.     

濒危植物水青树种子的生物学特性

通过连续三年（2006～2008）对水青树种子（Tetracentron sinense）的形态特征和生理特性等指标进行检测,探讨了不同储藏温度、时间和不同基质对水青树种子萌发的影响,分析了与种子生物学特性相关的濒危机制。水青树种子很小,其形态特征、千粒重、含水量和饱满度在不同年限间差异不显著,而吸水速率却差异显著,其中2007年种子的吸水速率最快。TTC染色测得3年水青树种子的活力几乎为0,但其活力指数分别为0、0.41和0.27,表明TTC染色法不适于水青树种子活力的估算。低温储藏后,3年种子的萌发率分别为1.25%、96.5%、70.8%,发芽势分别为1%、59.8%、41.8%。随储藏时间的增加,2007年种子活力降低的速度都慢于其它2年,低温储藏的种子活力降低速度慢于常温储藏的种子。不同基质对水青树种子的萌发和幼苗的生长有一定影响。结果表明,大年水青树种子的活力明显强于小年,随储藏时间的增加其活力的丧失速度也慢于小年;低温储藏有利于种子活力的保持。种子生物学特性方面导致水青树更新困难的原因可能有以下几点：（1）长期进化形成的小种子虽有利于传播和散布,但不利于种子和幼苗的存活;（2）长期低温不适于种子萌发,难以形成应有的幼苗格局;（3）长期湿润环境不适于种子安全度过寒冷期。     

On the density-dependence of seed predation in<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Dipteryx micrantha</Emphasis>, a bat-dispersed rain forest tree

We studied the effect of seed density on seed predation by following the fate of bat-dispersed Dipteryx micrantha (Leguminosae) seeds deposited under bat feeding roosts. The study was conducted in Cocha Cashu biological station, Amazonian Peru, during the fruiting period of Dipteryx. Predation of Dipteryx seeds in the area is mainly by large to medium-sized rodents. Seed deposits beneath bat feeding roosts were monitored for a 13-week period in an 18-ha study area. A total of 210 seed deposits were found, and on average, seed predators encountered 22% of them during any one week. About one-third of the seed deposits escaped predation, and those deposits that had relatively few seeds were more likely to go unnoticed by rodents than were deposits with many seeds. The mean seed destruction rate was 8% per week; deposits with many seeds tended to lose a smaller proportion of their seeds to seed predators than did deposits with few seeds. Regression tests for the weekly data showed that, at the beginning of the observation period, seed predation was not density-dependent. Later, when the total seed crop beneath roosts was high, the number of seeds predated per deposit was positively density-dependent, while the proportion of seeds predated was negatively density-dependent, indicating predator satiation. Seed deposits that had been visited by seed predators once had a higher probability of being revisited the week after, especially if they contained many seeds when first encountered. This indicates that the foraging behavior of rodents may be affected by their remembering the location of seed-rich patches.     

Biological Characteristics of Seeds of Endangered Plant Tetracentron sinense （Tetracentraceae）

By detecting the indicators of seeds such as the morphology and physiological characteristics within three consecutive years, the effects of different storage temperatures and time, and different media on seed germination of Tetracentron sinense were discussed, and also the endangered mechanism associated with biological characteristics of seeds was analyzed. The seeds of T.sinense were very small. No significant difference existed associated with seed morphology, 1000 seed weight, water content and plumpness, except for water absorption rate among seeds from different year, and the water absorption rate of seeds from 2007 was the fastest. The TTC results showed that the percentage of seed vigor was close to zero, but the vigor index of seeds among different year was respectively 0, 041 and 027, which indicated that TTC was not suitable for the estimation of Tsinense seed vigor. After stored at lower temperature, the germination rate of these seeds was respectively 125%、965%、708%, and the germination force was 1%、598%、418%. With the increase of storage time, seeds vigor of three years would decrease gradually, but the loss rate of seed vigor from 2007 was the slowest compared with other years. After stored at room temperature, the seed vigor would decrease even faster with the increase of storage time, compared with that stored at lower temperature. Different media had a certain effect on seed germination and seedling growth. The results showed that seed vigor from an abundant year was better than that of off year, and would decrease even slower than that of off year with the increase of storage time. The storage at lower temperature was favorable to the maintenance of seed vigor. The reasons resulted in severe danger related to Tsinense seeds are as follows: (1) Small seeds contributed to the spread and dispersal of species, was not beneficial to the survival of seed and seedling. (2) Perennial low temperature was not suitable for seed germination and the formation of a seedling pattern; (3) Perennial moist environment was not suitable for seed living through cold period safely.     

不同天然居群小檗种子萌发障碍因子研究

以西天山野果林霍城居群、新源居群和特克斯居群黑果小檗以及特克斯居群红果小檗种子为试验材料,研究了4组野生小檗种子生物学特性、吸水特性以及去种皮、低温层积和不同浓度GA₃处理对小檗种子休眠与萌发特性的影响,结果表明：（1）4组野生小檗种子的吸水率均表现出逐渐增加的趋势,黑果小檗种子与红果小檗种子吸水率差异不明显,其种皮透水透气性相似;（2）霍城居群、新源居群和特克斯居群黑果小檗种子的种皮对萌发存在强烈的抑制作用;而新源居群红果小檗种子的种皮抑制作用不明显;（3）4℃低温层积处理对4组野生小檗种子萌发影响很大,随层积时间的增加小檗种子发芽率均逐渐提高,3组黑果小檗种子层积90 d时,休眠基本被解除;红果小檗种子层积30 d时,休眠基本被解除;（4）浓度为200 mg·L^-1的GA₃溶液处理可显著提高4组小檗种子发芽率,浓度过高或过低均会对小檗种子萌发起到抑制作用。层积60 d时霍城居群、新源居群和特克斯居群黑果小檗去种皮种子用200 mg·L^-1的GA₃溶液处理2 h后,发芽率分别为85.00%、83.33%和86.67%;红果小檗层积15 d时去种皮种子用浓度为200 mg·L^-1的GA₃溶液处理后,发芽率可达86.67%。研究结果将为今后野生小檗的种质资源保护,利用及可持续发展提供技术支持和科学依据。     

Patchiness and disturbance: plant community responses to porcupine diggings in the central Negev

We tested the hypothesis that diversity and productivity of herbaceous plant communities in disturbed soil are related to the physical and biological heterogeneity of the landscape Our study was earned out on vegetation responses in porcupine diggings on a rocky slope in the central Negev desert in Israel We measured aboveground bio-mass and plant density per species in 150 porcupine diggings (15 cm deep and 15 to 20 cm wide) and in equally sized adjacent control samples in the undisturbed soil matrix We calculated mean annual biomass production, plant density and species richness for 10 sample areas along the slope In addition, we divided the plants into groups according to propagule size and dispersal mode We denoted two types of landscape heterogeneity, which we called physical and biological patchiness Physical patchiness was measured as the ratio of bare rock to soil surface Biological patchiness was the area of the soil covered by shrubs with associated soil mound and under-story relative to the total soil surface We also measured disturbance density, as the long term (17 yr) average density of newly made porcupine diggings We found that 1) the physical patchiness explained 30% of the variation of biological patchiness along the slope, while 2) the patterns of disturbance intensity and biological patchiness were similar (R-=0 386) 3) Biomass, density and species richness were significantly higher in diggings than m the soil matrix 4) Plant density in the matrix, but not m the diggings, was significantly correlated with physical patchiness, 5) species richness in diggings was significantly correlated with biological patchiness, but 6) biomass production in diggings and matrix was not affected by either physical or biological patchiness of the landscape 7) Disturbance density did not affect vegetation responses in diggings and matrix 8) A shift in the plant communities in the matrix towards plants with smaller seeds was associated with increasing physical patchiness, while m diggings there was an opposite shift 9) The proportion of wind dispersers was higher in diggings than outside, while the proportion of runoff dispersers was lower, 10) the densities of runoff dispersers in diggings and matrix were positively correlated with physical and biological patchiness 11) Physical and biological patchiness formed the two major gradients of species composition, explaining 30 and 25% respectively We conclude that the network of physical and biological patchiness and soil disturbance are important in the redistribution of resources and seeds, which control plant biomass, density, species richness and diversity The bare rock surface is the main source for runoff flow with associated soil, organic matter and nutrients The understory vegetation of shrubs provides seeds for creating and maintaining diversity The soil matrix absorbs runoff flow, and disturbances absorb runoff and trap seeds Thus, differences in landscape heterogeneity and their effects on resource and seed movement interact in controlling plant community productivity and diversity in the landscape     

Removal of post-dispersed seeds in Acacia cyclops thickets under biological control in South Africa

Biological control programmes have been mounted against all invasive Australian acacias with two agent species, Melanterius servulus (seed feeding weevil), and Dasineura dielsi (flower galling midge), being released on Acacia cyclops (rooikrans) in 1991 and 2002 respectively. Both of these agents are prolific and are causing high levels of damage, resulting in reduced seeding capacity of A. cyclops which in turn is expected to limit the invasiveness of the species. As part of an ongoing study to determine the long-term effectiveness of the biological control programme, we measured seed removal rates of A. cyclops by invertebrates and vertebrates, and the composition of granivorous species, to determine how these compare with earlier studies when there was no biological control. Results show that in A. cyclops thickets under biological control, 13% of seeds were removed by invertebrates 59% by rodents and 15% by ground-foraging birds and large mammals within 24 h. The removal rates of seeds with arils intact were double than those of seeds without arils. Camera traps captured 10 vertebrate species comprising six birds and four mammals including Mellivora capensis Storr (Cape ratel) and Raphicerus melanotis Thunberg (Cape grysbok) consuming seeds from stashes. The most frequent visitors were Rhabdomys pumilio (striped mouse), Streptopelia capicola (Cape turtledove) and Cossypha caffra (Cape robin-chat) (33%, 27% and 20% of visits respectively). We conclude that levels of granivory and the composition have not changed substantially with biological agents in the system.     

Seeds germination of Caesalpinia paraguariensis (Fabaceae): scarificator agents and cattle effects]

The tree Caesalpinia paraguariensis grows in the Chaco region, Argentina. Fruits are indehiscent with many seeds. This species is an important source of wood and the fruits are consumed by cattle in Salta province. We studied seed germination under chemical, mechanical and biological scarification. Seeds from controls (without scarification) and those with biological scarification had a smaller (and similar) germination rate. The non-germinated seeds from biological treatments were mechanically scarified and their germination rate was similar to others under the mechanical treatment. Passage by digestive tracts would not enhance germination because viable seeds are still dormant due to their hard coats.     

Changes in the DNA lesions induced by alkylating agents during the post-treatment washing and redrying of barley seeds

During the 24 hours’ washing of¹⁴C MNU and¹⁴C MMS-treated seeds the amount of DNA 7-methylguanine as well as the total alkylation of DNA, RNA and proteins in cells of the embryo was enhanced. The drying of shortly washed¹⁴C MNU-treated seeds to 30% and 15% water content led to, a similar increase of alkylation. In accordance with the changes in the biological damage, the amount of single strand breaks and/or alkali labile sites in DNA dropped down during a 19 h washing period of MNU-treated seeds but changed only slightly in MMS-treated and 19 hours washed seeds. The drying of 0·5 or 18 h resp. 19 h washed seeds treated either with MNU or MMS to 15 per cent water content increased the amount of single strand breaks and/or alkali labile sites in DNA.     

Impact of herbivory on mile-a-minute weed (Persicaria perfoliata) seed production and viability

The monophagous weevil Rhinoncomimus latipes Korotyaev (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has been introduced into North America as a biological control agent for the invasive vine mile-a-minute weed, Persicaria perfoliata (L.) H. Gross. This weevil has been shown to reduce the percent cover of mile-a-minute and the number of seed clusters produced, as well as altering the phenology of seed production. However, prior work has not examined the potential impact of the weevil on seed viability and numbers of seeds per cluster. When both adult and larval weevils fed on whole plants in the greenhouse, seed production and fruit maturation were delayed and both the total number of seeds and number of seeds per cluster were reduced. Overall, weevils in greenhouse cages reduced the reproductive potential of P. perfoliata by 35%. When adult weevils were confined on developing seed clusters in the field, the number of seeds produced per cluster, the weight of seeds produced, and seed viability all decreased. Overall, the number of viable seeds per cluster was reduced by 37% in the presence of adult weevils. Taken together, these findings demonstrate that this biological control agent can have important impacts on the reproductive potential of its target weed through mechanisms that have not previously been shown.     

Testing the directed dispersal hypothesis: are native ant mounds (Formica sp.) favorable microhabitats for an invasive plant?

Ant-mediated seed dispersal may be a form of directed dispersal if collected seeds are placed in a favorable microhabitat (e.g., in or near an ant nest) that increases plant establishment, growth, and/or reproduction relative to random locations. We investigated whether the native ant community interacts with invasive leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) in a manner consistent with predictions of the directed dispersal hypothesis. Resident ants quickly located and dispersed 60% of experimentally offered E. esula seeds. Additionally, 40% of seeds whose final deposition site was observed were either brought inside or placed on top of an ant nest. Seed removal was 100% when seeds were placed experimentally on foraging trails of mound-building Formica obscuripes, although the deposition site of these seeds is unknown. Natural density and above-ground biomass of E. esula were greater on Formica mound edges compared to random locations. However, seedling recruitment and establishment from experimentally planted E. esula seeds was not greater on mound edges than random locations 3 m from the mound. Soil from Formica mound edges was greater in available nitrogen and available phosphorus relative to random soil locations 3 m from the mound. These results suggest Formica ant mounds are favorable microhabitats for E. esula growth following seedling establishment, a likely consequence of nutrient limitation during plant growth. The results also indicate positive species interactions may play an important role in biological invasions.     

板蓝根种子的吸水特性及发芽条件研究

采用室内测定方法,对板蓝根种子的吸水特性及不同处理下种子的发芽率、发芽势和相对活力指数等进行比较研究。结果表明,板蓝根种子具有快速吸水的生物学特性,分为快速吸水期、缓慢吸水期和缓慢吐水期三个阶段,入水后2 h的吸水量达最大吸水量的73.29%,为快速吸水阶段;温度对板蓝根种子的萌发影响较大,最适发芽温度为30℃。光照、发芽床和种子预处理对板蓝根种子的萌发无明显影响。这说明板蓝根种子的萌发主要取决于水分和温度。     

蓝花丹种子生物学特性及其采集、贮藏技术研究

蓝花丹（Plumbago auriculata Lam.）原产南非,由于其存在自交不亲和现象,导致自然结实率极低。本文研究了蓝花丹种子的形态结构、吸水特性及最适萌发温度,根据形态观测以及发芽率等指标筛选出优质种子,并对优质种子不同的干燥方法、贮藏温度等进行探讨。结果表明：蓝花丹种子呈长椭圆状,长8.00~13.80 mm,长宽比约为5.3：1。种皮薄而柔软,有网状褶皱。外种皮表面有附着物,大面积分布有腺体,利于种子传播。胚芽靠近合点,萌发率较高。种子播种前的浸种时间应保持在11 h以上,最适发芽温度为25~30℃。当种皮颜色为深褐色,种子长度大于11 mm且发芽率大于75%时,可判断为优质种子,发生此性状时即为最佳采种时间。种子适宜的干燥方式为烘箱内30℃干燥1 d,干燥种子最佳贮藏温度为-86℃,且贮藏时间越短发芽率越高,而新鲜种子在此条件下不宜贮藏超过15 d。     

安祖花人工种子的研制

用安祖花叶片作为外植体,诱导产生致密愈伤组织,将安祖花致密愈伤组织切成规则小块,用(MS+0.1 mg/L NAA)培养基预培养半个月,诱导根的发生。再用继代培养基包埋培养物进行固定化培养,经1月后筛选具不定根的培养物,采用再包埋方法制成人工种子。当这种人工种子播于有菌土壤时可得到63%的成活率(转株率)。我们认为致密愈伤组织中不定芽和愈伤组织间发生的是生物学接触,不定芽的初始生长由愈伤组织通过生物学途径提供营养,从而大大提高了人工种子的活力。用含不定芽的致密愈伤组织作为培养物,对于人工种子的机械化生产和田间应用具有参考价值。