Hybridization between Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and Sika deer (Cervus nippon) with particular reference to stocks in N.W. England

Sika deer ( Cervus nippon Temminck) from Japan were introduced into Great Britain and Ireland first in 1860, and, for a time, were much sought after by owners of deer parks. Later, they were introduced or allowed to escape into various parts of the country, and feral populations have become established in Scotland, England and Ireland.
Hybridization between Sika and Red deer ( Cervus elaphus L.) has occurred frequently in deer parks but has been reported only recently from feral and wild stocks.
In part of north-west England, there have been reports of hybrids from time to time ever since the 1920s, but these have become commonplace only recently. Since the Red deer inhabiting other parts of the region are all of the native race ( Cervus elaphus scolicus Lönnberg) and no other population of this race exists elsewhere in England, work was begun to assess the threat to the survival of both the race and the species posed by Sika deer and, more particularly, by the hybrids on Cartmel Fell.
Using multivariate methods of analysis on a range of skull measurements (see page 556) obtained from samples of both species and their hybrids, an attempt was made to find some means of distinguishing the hybrids from the species irrespective of the extent to which introgression had occurred. This was largely successful using canonical variate analysis, but only when the sets of data used to construct the basic matrix were both homogeneous and biologically relevant, i.e. of the same age and sex, and where the samples were obtained from the races involved in the hybridization. The present classification of the subspecies of Sika deer received little support from this study. Many of the subspecies as described in the literature were found to be indistinguishable from some of the hybrids, which suggests that some revision may be necessary.     

Variation in mandible length and body weight of Red deer (Cervus elaphus)

The range of intra-specific variation in morphological characters has rarely been examined by taxonomists, and subspecies have often been named on the basis of as few as two skulls. However, despite the limitations set by the material data, taxonomists have long recognized an apparent cline in nose length of Red deer ( Cervus elaphus L.) between the eastern and western extremities of its European distribution. Since larger samples of mandible and body weight data have recently become available for three widely separated populations within the north western parts of their range—the Isle of Rhum (north-west Scotland), Grizedale (north-west England) and Oksbol (Denmark)—it has become possible to examine this cline critically in relation to age, development and geography. In all three populations, the relationship between body weight and jaw length differed significantly at the 1% level, but, as expected, whilst the deer from Denmark had the longest mandibles as adults, as juveniles they had the shortest mandibles in relation to body weight. Furthermore, if the island of Rhum was divided arbitrarily into three areas, namely north western, south western and eastern, an exactly similar picture emerged. Therefore, no single simple law such as Bergman's rule seems to offer an entirely satisfactory explanation.     

圈养条件下新疆马鹿两个亚种的肠道菌群比较分析

肠道菌群组成复杂，与宿主肠道内环境动态平衡和健康息息相关。马鹿是鹿科动物中分布最广的种类，亚种分化众多，但现有马鹿肠道菌群研究较少。为丰富马鹿肠道菌群数据，以马鹿的两个亚种为阶元，运用高通量16S rRNA基因测序技术检测了7头雄性天山马鹿和7头雄性塔里木马鹿的肠道微生物，对其核心菌群、结构组成、多样性及肠道微生物的差异进行分析，旨在了解不同马鹿亚种肠道微生物组成差异，为两亚种间肠道菌群的差异提供参考。研究结果表明，塔里木马鹿菌群多样性及丰度低于天山马鹿。厚壁菌门（Firmicutes）、放线菌门（Actinobacteria）、变形菌门（Proteobacteria）及拟杆菌门（Bacteroidetes）为两组马鹿的优势菌门。此外，天山马鹿肠道中分解蛋白质、脂质的拟杆菌门和变形菌门相对丰度高于塔里木马鹿，而分解植物纤维的双歧杆菌（Bifidobacterium）、瘤胃球菌科UCG 014（Ruminococcaceae UCG 014）的相对丰度低于塔里木马鹿。本研究对天山马鹿及塔里木马鹿肠道菌群组成进行初步了解，可根据研究结果调整其饲料配比，为马鹿饲养管理的改善提供参考。     

A genetic study of sika (Cervus nippon) in the New Forest and in the Purbeck region, southern England: is there evidence of recent or past hybridization with red deer (Cervus elaphus)?

Sika Cervus nippon are native to Japan and East Asia but are now naturalized in many parks of the world, including Britain. In contrast to the substantial body of research on the extent of hybridization between sika and red deer Cervus elaphus in Scottish populations, there has been little genetic analysis of the English populations of sika. Sika in England still have a patchy and discontinuous distribution; populations are thus still genetically isolated and may be expected to show higher variability in genetic type. The current paper uses DNA-based techniques to explore the genetic composition of sika in the New Forest (Hampshire) and that of sika from the largest population in England, in the Purbeck region (Dorset). The study aims were to determine whether New Forest sika show signs of recent interbreeding with New Forest red deer populations, whether New Forest sika are genetically distinct from Purbeck sika, and whether New Forest and Purbeck sika show evidence of past hybridization or whether they are pure (non-hybrid) strains. Microsatellite analysis was used to compare the genetic profiles of individual deer. Results showed that sika and red deer in the New Forest were genetically distinct, indicating that there is no large-scale in situ hybridization occurring between these feral populations. In terms of overall genetic composition, there was no significant difference between the sika in the New Forest and Purbeck. However, a more detailed analysis found that New Forest sika showed a lower level of introgression with red deer compared with the Purbeck sika. We conclude that, overall, the New Forest sika deer do appear to be more genetically pure bred than the Purbeck sika.     

新疆马鹿塔里木亚种的现状与保护

新疆马鹿塔里木亚种高度适应荒漠生境, 自20 世纪50 年代以来, 由于自然和人为因素的影响, 种群数量急剧下降。栖息地退缩和片段化不仅导致种群遗传多样性的丧失, 而且也因遗传漂变和近亲繁殖, 不断地加剧了该亚种的濒危程度。为有效的保护该物种, 特提出可行的保护措施建议。     

Assessing biogeographical relationships of ecologically related species using favourability functions: a case study on British deer

Aim Using six free‐living deer species in Great Britain as a case study, we studied biogeographical relationships of ecologically related species composed of both native and introduced species. Location Great Britain. Methods  We modelled the environmental favourability for the deer species using variables related with spatial location, climate, topography, human disturbances and habitat structure. Favourability values of each pair of native (naturalized)‐introduced species were used to estimate the fuzzy overlap index (FOvI) as a measure of overall similarity between the environmental requirements for the species in Great Britain. The absolute local overlap values (FOvI‐L) were also used to measure the degree to which a given location was favourable simultaneously for each pair of species. We assessed the trends of species favourability across a range defined by the absolute local overlap values and studied the shape of the obtained curves since they informs us about the favourability balance between the studied species. Results Muntjac and Chinese water deer attained higher favourability values than native species in localities with intermediate values of FOvI‐L (a reduced number in the study area), suggesting that if competitive relationships were established in these localities the introduced deer species may have some advantages over natives. Sika deer only achieved higher values than fallow deer in those localities clearly unfavourable for the naturalized species. Our analyses predicted that fallow deer will be less affected by the introduced deer species than native species. Main conclusions We developed an approach based on the favourability function to describe biogeographical relationships between species, natives and introduced and to assess from a biogeographical perspective if introduced species could pose a competitive risk to natives. Although the results of present analyses do not conclusively demonstrate competitive exclusion, they provide directional hypotheses that can be tested in experimental field and laboratory studies.     

Impact of deer in lowland Britain on agriculture, forestry and conservation habitats

Probably in response to recent changes in habitat structure, populations of a number of species of deer are increasing both in numbers and in geographical distribution in lowland Britain. In the wake of this expansion there is increasing awareness and concern over damage to agriculture/horticulture and forestry, as well as damage to sensitive vegetation in conservation areas. Despite a perception that damage levels are rising, data that actually quantify the scale of impact by deer on lowland agriculture and forestry interests or conservation habitats are scarce. This review attempts to draw together such objective data as are available to assess more formally the actual impact of deer damage in these different contexts and the economic significance of damage caused. The review concludes with a brief consideration of implications for management. The majority of agricultural damage reported in England and Wales was due to Fallow, Red and Roe Deer; Muntjac were only implicated in a little horticultural damage where they are numerous. Most reports were of damage to pasture or cereals, with oilseed rape, nursery and orchard crops also frequently damaged. Because of fundamental differences in ecology and distribution, different species of deer were implicated in different types of damage, depending on feeding habit and distribution in relation to geographical patterns of crop-type. In a woodland context, Fallow, Red and Roe Deer were implicated in the majority of reported damage in lowland UK, which is most frequent in the north of England and lowest in Wales. Despite the apparent severity of damage caused to agriculture or forestry, the actual economic significance of such damage would appear in many cases to be negligible or small. Field crops frequently recover completely from such damage, and although woodland crops may be checked and quality of the timber may be reduced as a consequence of earlier browsing damage, losses may be far less than they first appear. This whole question of the true economic cost of deer damage needs further research. Deer damage to conservation habitats in England and Wales appears largely restricted to woodland; impact on heathlands, grasslands and wetlands is generally welcomed as helping to arrest invasion of scrub. Within woodlands, while concern is expressed in a small number of cases over losses of sensitive ground flora or suppression of natural regeneration, the major problem is in damage to coppice regrowth on sites where coppice management has been recently reintroduced.     

保护新疆马鹿塔里木亚种的建议

马鹿塔里木亚种分布于新疆塔里木盆地各沿河地带,强度适应荒漠生境。采用分子系统学方法研究表明,世界马鹿分为东西两大系统,马鹿塔里木亚种是我国唯一属于西部系统的亚种。在中国濒危动物红皮书中被列为濒危(E)亚种,按国际自然与自然资源保护联盟(IUCN)1993年制定的世界物种红色名录濒危定级标准,属于极危级(EN)。自20世纪50年代以来,由于自然和人为因素的影响,种群数量急骤下降,现今马鹿塔里木亚种在塔河流域被隔离为莎雅、尉犁和且末3个小种群,当前该亚种正受到栖息地减小和片断化的双重影响,而且因遗传漂变和近亲繁殖的不断增加也进一步加剧它的濒危程度。为有效保护该物种特提出可行的保护建议。     

Red and sika deer in the British Isles,current management issues and management policy

The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is one of the most widely distributed species of deer in Europe. Due to its economic value as game species or its negative impacts on forestry, agriculture and conservation areas, most populations are currently managed, with strategies and intensity of the management varying between countries. In Britain, and less certainly in Ireland, red deer have been continuously present since the end of the last glaciation and constitute the largest population of red deer in Europe. Although they thrived in the past when forests were abundant, the current distribution of red deer in the British Isles is uneven, with the largest numbers being found in Scotland and few and more localised populations in England, Wales and the Republic of Ireland. In the British Isles, as in many other parts of Europe, there is a long history of man interacting with deer populations including local extinctions, multiple translocations and introductions of exotic species of deer. Among introduced exotic species of deer, the Japanese sika (Cervus nippon) is the one of most concern. After introduction of small numbers at multiple locations in Britain and Ireland from 1860 onwards, sika have increased in population number and range in areas with good forest cover, and where they overlap with red deer there is a risk of hybridisation. Due to recent increases in numbers and range of red and sika deer, both species pose a range of management challenges which are not easy to solve. In this review we summarise the history and status of these two species in Great Britain and Ireland, describe current management and discuss management options for the future.     

Craniometric variability in two populations of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) from Spain

Two populations of roe deer from Spain, approximately 300 km apart from each other and currently recognized as separate subspecies. were studied to analyse the nature of the morphological differences between these populations and to assess the validity of its taxonomic division. Sixty-one skulls of roc deer from the Occidental Cantabric Mountains (OCM) and 17 from the Northern lberic Mountains (NIM) were used. No significant sexual dimorphism allowed pooling of male and female samples, on which a large set of 53 measurements was taken. Skulls from the OCM population are, on average, 1·9% larger than those from the NIM population. Twenty-five out of the 53 characters showed some degree of significant differences between means of both populations, though only four showed highly significant differences. Mandible characters were the most variable traits, showing also significant differences between populations. Eight principal factors were extracted. explaining a total of 84·7% of the sample variance. An ANOVA of factor scores from each population revealed significant differences in PF 1 and PF 3. Interpretation of these two factors suggests that morphological differences between both populations can be summarized as specimens from OCM having larger mandibles and broader neurocranium than specimens from NIM. Mandible differences might reflect morphological adaptations to favour the consumption of ligneous plants, which are more frequently eaten by the OCM roe deer population, whereas a broader neurocranium might be related to antler size. It is concluded that biometric differences observed in skulls from these two populations only reflect minor morphological adaptations to different habitats, thus. there is a lack of morphological data to support the taxonomic distinction of the OCM population as a separate subspecies.     

Museum samples provide novel insights into the taxonomy and genetic diversity of Irish red grouse

The taxonomic status of red grouse in Ireland has been the subject of considerable debate over the past century. Irish red grouse are usually classified as Lagopus lagopus scoticus, which is the same subspecies as that found in Britain, but some ornithologists believe that native Irish red grouse constitute an endemic subspecies, namely L. lagopus hibernicus. The considerable decline of Irish red grouse over the past century, along with possible hybridization with introduced grouse from Britain, have highlighted the need to resolve their taxonomic status as part of a biodiversity management plan. However, genetic analysis of samples from a single point in time will provide limited insight into potentially confounding historical events such as hybridization and introgression. We therefore compared mtDNA sequences from both current and historical samples of the two putative subspecies, scoticus and hibernicus, to see if they are or were genetically distinct. Red grouse from Britain and Ireland shared mitochondrial haplotypes, and our historical data suggest that this is unlikely to be the result of recent hybridization and introgression. These findings, combined with a general lack of documented differences in behaviour and ecology, suggest that Irish red grouse should remain classified as L. lagopus scoticus. At the same time, we found evidence that a significant amount of genetic diversity has been lost from Irish red grouse over the past century, presumably as a result of diminishing population sizes and fragmentation of extant populations. A loss of habitat, combined with the declining numbers and genetic diversity of Irish red grouse, justify their designation as an All-Ireland Priority (Red List) species and a Northern Ireland Priority Species for conservation.     

Annual foods of the Red deer (Cervus elaphus) and the Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) in the east of England

There have been few studies on the foods of Red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) and Roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) in British forests. Notable exceptions are the work of Prior (1968), Henry (1978) and Hosey (1981) on Roe deer. British work on the food of Red deer seems to have been confined to studies of animals on upland swards (Charles, McCowan & East, 1977; Staines ∓ Crisp, 1978). However, a more abundant supply of data on the food and feeding of both Red and Roe deer comes from the Continent (Dragoev, 1964; Gabuzov, 1960; Kolev, 1966; Novikov & Timofeeva, 1964; Siuda, Zorowski & Suida, 1969; Dzieciolowski, 1967 a , b , 1969). Even so the data available were obtained from studies made on individual species of deer. This paper reports the results of an investigation into seasonal changes in the diet of Red and Roe deer coexisting in a conifer forest in the east of England.     

Five thousand years of livestock in Britain

The introduction of livestock, including the rabbit and the fallow deer, to Britain is reviewed, and a summary is given of the history of husbandry arid selective breeding. The feeding or stock on foliage and its importance for survival through the winter is described. The meaning of domestication is discussed and ii is argued that there should be no separation between the old established breeds of livestock, park deer, and feral populations including Chillingham rattle, Soay sheep, and Bagot goats; all belong to the assemblage of large mammals that has created the landscape of the British Isles.     

Transferrin polymorphism and serum proteins of some British deer

Polymorphism of serum proteins has been described in a number of animals. The complexity of the phenotype pattern and the number and relative frequencies of the variants differ from species to species. Within a species, the variants have sometimes been found to characterize breeds and races. In this investigation the variants of transferrin in the serum proteins of three British deer, Red (Cervus elaphus L.), Fallow (Dama dama (L)) and Sika (Cervus nippon Temminck) have been studied and compared with those of other wild and domesticated ruminants for which data are available. In Red deer their distribution differed in samples from Rhum and Braemar. On Rhum, their distribution did not indicate any significant genetic differences between the stock in the six areas onto which the population appeared to be hefted. However, there appeared to be a difference corresponding to the main east and west division of the island, the significance of which is not apparent.     

Use of an ungulate‐specific feed structure as a potential tool for controlling feral goats in Australian forest ecosystems

The feral Goat (Capra hircus) has successfully exploited a range of landscapes around the world with occurrences of overabundance resulting in significant damage to ecological values. In forested ecosystems in Australia, there are currently limited means to control the species when compared to the range of management techniques available for other pest animals. To redress this deficiency, we designed a feed structure combined with commercially available salt blocks to attract goats to set locations in a forested study area. Structures that exploited differences in the pedal morphology (foot size and shape) of native herbivores (kangaroos and wallabies) and ungulates (feral goats and deer) were found to be highly target‐specific, with feral goats freely able to access salt blocks, whilst nontarget native species were effectively excluded. Other introduced ungulate species, Fallow Deer (Dama dama) and Red Deer (Cervus elaphus), successfully accessed salt blocks in feed structures but at a considerably lower rate than feral goats. The capacity to present a range of bait types within a target‐specific feed structure, once matched with a humane toxicant, could provide land managers with an additional cost‐effective lethal control tool for future management of feral ungulates, particularly goats.     

There is only one winner: The negative impact of red deer density on roe deer numbers and distribution in the Słowiński National Park and its vicinity

Red and roe deer are the most numerous cervids in Europe, and they occur in sympatry in most regions. Roe deer were considered to be an inferior competitor in studies in which they co‐occurred with fallow deer or muntjac. Despite the remarkable overlap of their ranges, there are few studies on the competition between the red and roe deer. Since interspecific interactions among ungulates are often related to their mutual densities, the current study focused on the effects of high red deer density on the roe deer numbers and spatial distribution in the unhunted Słowiński National Park (SNP) in northern Poland and forest districts open to hunting bordering the park. Using fecal pellet group counts, it was found that in the forest districts (where red deer densities were 2–3 times lower than in the SNP), roe deer densities were significantly higher than in the park. The red‐to‐roe deer density ratio was 10.8 and 2.7, in the SNP and the surrounding forest districts, respectively. Moreover, in the SNP, the roe deer distribution was negatively affected by the red deer habitat use, while in the hunting areas, such an effect was not recorded. The negative influence of the red deer on the roe deer population in the park was most probably due to the red deer impact on food availability. The biomass of the plant groups forming the staple food of the roe deer (Rubus spp., forbs, dwarf shrubs) was significantly higher in the fenced plots than in the unfenced ones. Lack of hunting in the protected areas may benefit only some species in ungulate assemblages which, in turn, may contradict one of their objectives—to maintain viable and ecologically functional populations.     

新疆哈密山区天山马鹿(Cervus elaphus songaricus)的种群数量调查*

查清新疆东部哈密山区野生天山马鹿(Cervus elaphus songaricus)种群的现状,可为有效保护与合理利用野生马鹿资源提供科学依据。我们通过截线抽样法和遥感技术,弄清哈密山区天山马鹿的栖息地范围,估算马鹿的种群数量及种群密度。在哈密山区野生天山马鹿分布区域共设计了28条样线,总长度60.1 km,遇见马鹿233头,通过计算得到该地区马鹿天山亚种种群平均密度为(2.83?1.01)头/km2。栖息地面积374.35 km2,估计马鹿总数为(1 057.56?379.71)头左右。雌雄比例2.24:1,幼体和亚成体的总数量多于成体和老体总数。研究区域内马鹿的种群密度和资源总数量比往年的调查结果有所上升;马鹿的分布海拔高度比较一致,但种群的大小具有不均匀性;从性比和年龄结构来看该研究区域的马鹿种群面向着数量的增长趋势。     

Phylogeography of red deer (Cervus elaphus): Analysis of MtDNA cytochrome b polymorphism

Analysis of MtDNA cytochrome b gene (1140 bp) polymorphism of 106 samples red deer (Cervus elaphus) from different regions of Eurasia was performed; the phylogenetic relationships of groups throughout the entire inhibiting area (including North America) were reconstructed. Totally 75 haplotypes were detected, 33 of which were found in the European and 42 in the Asian part of the area. There were no identical haplotypes for these two parts of the area found. The close relatedness between Siberian red deer (C. e. sibirica) and North American wapiti (C. e. canadensis) was confirmed. Red deer inhibiting Yakutia were close to the Siberian red deer from Altai and Tuva, whereas red deer inhibiting Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk regions formed a separate clade. Overall, the reconstructed phylogeographic pattern of the species was significantly different from the subspecies differentiation based on morphological traits.