‘I'm American,not Japanese!’: the struggle for racial citizenship among later-generation Japanese Americans

Abstract

As one of the oldest Asian American groups in the USA, most Japanese Americans are of the third and fourth generations and have become well integrated in mainstream American society. However, they are still racialized as foreigners simply because of their Asian appearance. Their Asian phenotype continues to have a foreigner connotation because of large-scale immigration from Asia and an American national identity that is racially defined as white. This paper analyses how later-generation Japanese Americans are racialized as outsiders in their daily interaction with mainstream Americans, which is often accompanied by essentialized assumptions that they are also culturally foreign. In response, they engage in everyday struggles for racial citizenship by demanding inclusion in the national community as Americans despite their racial differences. It is uncertain whether such attempts to contest their racialization will cause current mono-racial notions of American identity to be reconsidered in more inclusive and multiracial ways.     

Characteristics of βA chromosome haplotypes in Japanese

DNA polymorphism patterns linked to the ^A-globin gene were analyzed in healthy Japanese using four different restriction endonucleases. The chromosomes with the ^A-globin gene were mapped through an evaluation of the presence of seven different restriction sites (HincII 5 to ; HindIII in ^G and ^A; HincII in, and 3 to, ₁; AvaII in ; Bam-HI 3 to ). Among 36 chromosomes analyzed, 20 chromosomes had a haplotype of [+–––––+]. Among 55 individuals examined, 7 possessed a homozygous haplotye of [+–––––+]. All Japanese with the ^AT-globin gene had a subhaplotype of [–++–+] 5 to the -globin gene. Their major haplotypes were [–++–+–+] and [–++–++–]. It was expected that the presence of the ^AT-globin gene in Japanese may be deduced from subhaplotypes 5 to the -globin gene.     

Japanese Encephalitis��A Pathological and Clinical Perspective

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the leading form of viral encephalitis in Asia. It is caused by the JE virus (JEV), which belongs to the family Flaviviridae. JEV is endemic to many parts of Asia, where periodic outbreaks take hundreds of lives. Despite the catastrophes it causes, JE has remained a tropical disease uncommon in the West. With rapid globalization and climatic shift, JEV has started to emerge in areas where the threat was previously unknown. Scientific evidence predicts that JEV will soon become a global pathogen and cause of worldwide pandemics. Although some research documents JEV pathogenesis and drug discovery, worldwide awareness of the need for extensive research to deal with JE is still lacking. This review focuses on the exigency of developing a worldwide effort to acknowledge the prime importance of performing an extensive study of this thus far neglected tropical viral disease. This review also outlines the pathogenesis, the scientific efforts channeled into develop a therapy, and the outlook for a possible future breakthrough addressing this killer disease.     

How costly are ejaculates for Japanese macaques?

Much sexual selection theory is based on the idea that ejaculate is cheap. Since further details are unknown our aim was to determine the energy that primate males require for ejaculate production. We addressed this problem by measuring the energy content (in kJ) of ejaculates from Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) using standard bomb calorimetry. Then, we estimated the relative amount of energy that individuals require for ejaculate production by relating the net energy content of ejaculates to males daily basal metabolic rate (BMR). Fresh macaque ejaculate contains 3.0 kJ ml^–1. Assuming a mean volume of 2.7 ml an average macaque ejaculate contains 8.1 kJ. Depending on the individuals body mass (6–13 kg) and the number and volume of the ejaculates, macaque males are assumed to use between at least 0.8% and at most 6.0% of their BMR for ejaculate production per day during the breeding season. Even when regarding only the minimal energy investment of 0.8% of daily BMR for ejaculate production, clearly ejaculates come with some cost for primate males.     

Resilient Plant–Bird Interactions in a Volcanic Island Ecosystem: Pollination of Japanese Camellia Mediated by the Japanese White-Eye

Observations of interspecies interactions during volcanic activity provide important opportunities to study how organisms respond to environmental devastation. Japanese camellia (Camellia japonica L.) and its main avian pollinator, the Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonica), offer an excellent example of such an interaction as key members of the biotic community on Miyake-jima, which erupted in 2000 and continues to emit volcanic gases. Both species exhibit higher resistance to volcanic damage than other species. We examined the effects of volcanic activity on this plant–pollinator system by estimating pollen flow and the genetic diversity of the next generation. The results showed that despite a decrease in Camellia flowers, the partitioning of allelic richness among mother-tree pollen pools and seeds decreased while the migration rate of pollen from outside the study plot and the pollen donor diversity within a fruit increased as the index of volcanic damage increased. In areas with low food (flower) density due to volcanic damage, Z. japonica ranged over larger areas to satisfy its energy needs rather than moving to areas with higher food density. Consequently, the genetic diversity of the seeds (the next plant generation) increased with the index of volcanic damage. The results were consistent with previously published data on the movement of Z. japonica based on radio tracking and the genetic diversity of Camellia pollen adhering to pollinators. Overall, our results indicated that compensation mechanisms ensured better pollination after volcanic disturbance.     

When Does Gastric Atrophy Develop in Japanese Children?

Background: Long-term Helicobacter pylori infection causes inflammatory sequelae such as atrophy and intestinal metaplasia in the stomach, which is thought to increase the risk of developing gastric malignancy. We previously reported that gastric atrophy can develop in Japanese children with H. pylori infection, predominantly in the antrum. However, detailed data about the age of children with atrophy are largely lacking.
Methods and results: In the present study, 131 children (79 boys) with H. pylori infection were re-analyzed for an association between age and the grade of gastric atrophy. The gastric antrum was histologically evaluated in all 131 patients and the corpus in 46 patients. Grade 2 and 3 antral atrophy was observed in 13 and one patients, respectively: the mean age was 12.1 years. Two patients (11 and 14 years old) had grade 2 corpus atrophy but no patients had grade 3. No significant difference was found in age among patients with grade 0, 1 and 2 or 3 atrophy in the antrum ( p =  .97) and in the corpus ( p =  .59). None of the patients with grade 2 or 3 atrophy had intestinal metaplasia either in the antrum or in the corpus.
Conclusions: The results of the present study require a careful interpretation because of the retrospective analysis. In high-risk countries of gastric cancer, however, eradicating H. pylori in childhood could prove more effective in preventing gastric atrophy, ultimately, the development of cancer.     

Where is the origin of the Japanese gamecocks?

The tradition of cockfighting is widespread throughout the world. There is no doubt that the gamecock has evolved together with the human culture of cockfighting for a long time. In Japan, there is a group of gamecocks called "Shamo" that are used specifically for cockfighting. However, the process of the geographic distribution of cockfighting and the influx route of gamecocks into Japan are totally unclear. The molecular evolutionary study of gamecocks is obviously useful to gain profound insight into the understanding of not only the evolutionary origin of "Shamo" but also the distribution process of cockfighting as a culture. In this study, we collected blood samples of gamecocks from 11 different prefectures in Japan. Then, a phylogenetic tree was constructed using a total of 42 mtDNAs (D-loop, 1100 bp) sequenced. It showed that Japanese Shamo was clearly separated into two different groups: One group contains the samples from the island of Okinawa and the other group is composed of the samples mainly from Kyushu and Honshu of Japan. It suggests that Japanese Shamo must have been brought to Japan from two different origins. Our examination of historical records showed that the results of the phylogenetic analysis is consistent with the view that Japanese Shamo was originated from Southeast Asia and the mainland China independently, but was geographically a bit mixed afterwards.     

Taq I-generated HLA-DQ αpolymorphism in Japanese patients with narcolepsy

Taq I-generated HLA-DQrestriction fragment length polymorphism was examined in Japanese patients with narcolepsy. All patients were DR2 positive and shared a 6.0 kb fragment, although this fragment was found only in 54 % of the healthy DR2-positive Japanese. This finding added the DQ gene to the list of candidates for the possible narcolepsy-susceptibility gene. In contrast, there was no complete association between narcolepsy and DXrestriction fragment length polymorphism. These findings suggest that a narcolepsy-susceptibility gene is located closer to the DQ locus than to the DX locus.     

Mother–young distance in Japanese Black cattle at pasture

Distance between dam and offspring (1–121 days old) in a herd of Japanese Black cattle (Bos taurus) grazing a tropical grass (Paspalum notatum) pasture (1.5 ha) was investigated during 7-h grazing periods over grazing seasons from May (spring) to October (autumn). The mother–young distance was not constant throughout the grazing period, repeatedly increasing and decreasing. Although significant periodicity was always detected in the mother–young distance, there was no consistent dominant cycle, indicating the complexity of the within-day pattern of mother–young distance. The mean mother–young distance over the grazing period increased as a calf aged, reaching a plateau at an age of about 33 days. The mean distance of a calf from its mother was usually shorter than that from a non-mother cow, with the difference between the mean distances decreasing sharply until a calf became about 35 days old. The results and literature show that mutual independence of mother and young rapidly develops in the first 30–50 days after parturition. Electronic Publication     

Review of Japanese Cenozoic (Miocene–Modern) Vertebrate Tracks

One hundred and seventy three Cenozoic vertebrate track sites from Miocene to 1600 A.D have been reported in Japan. Three ichnofaunas can be recognized: a perissodactyl and artiodactyl ichnofauna in the Miocene, an artiodactyl and proboscidean ichnofauna in the Plio-Pleistocene, and human ichnofauna from about 900–800 B.C. to about 1400–1600 A.D. Track data indicate that a predominance of large vertebrates in fluvio-lacustrine environment in lowland changed from perissodactyls to proboscidean through Miocene to Plio-Pleistocene, and ancient people then occupied lowlands instead of large animals. Pes length of proboscidean tracks revealed temporal variation, and the relationship between proboscidean body sizes and tracks was observed. The Cenozoic Japanese proboscidean trackways can be distinguished on the basis of trackway width, as narrow- and wide-gauge, but the difference between of those narrow- and wide-gauge trackways probably indicates generic level differences. The Cenozoic Japanese bird tracks can be identified as four types: ?crane (Family Gruidae?), ?heron (Family Ardeidae?), ?stork (Family Ciconiidae?), and ?shorebird tracks.     

Spatiotemporal Patterns of Japanese Encephalitis in China, 2002–2010

Objective

The aim of the study is to examine the spatiotemporal pattern of Japanese Encephalitis (JE) in mainland China during 2002–2010. Specific objectives of the study were to quantify the temporal variation in incidence of JE cases, to determine if clustering of JE cases exists, to detect high risk spatiotemporal clusters of JE cases and to provide evidence-based preventive suggestions to relevant stakeholders.

Methods

Monthly JE cases at the county level in mainland China during 2002–2010 were obtained from the China Information System for Diseases Control and Prevention (CISDCP). For the purpose of the analysis, JE case counts for nine years were aggregated into four temporal periods (2002; 2003–2005; 2006; and 2007–2010). Local Indicators of Spatial Association and spatial scan statistics were performed to detect and evaluate local high risk space-time clusters.

Results

JE incidence showed a decreasing trend from 2002 to 2005 but peaked in 2006, then fluctuated over the study period. Spatial cluster analysis detected high value clusters, mainly located in Southwestern China. Similarly, we identified a primary spatiotemporal cluster of JE in Southwestern China between July and August, with the geographical range of JE transmission increasing over the past years.

Conclusion

JE in China is geographically clustered and its spatial extent dynamically changed during the last nine years in mainland China. This indicates that risk factors for JE infection are likely to be spatially heterogeneous. The results may assist national and local health authorities in the development/refinement of a better preventive strategy and increase the effectiveness of public health interventions against JE transmission.     

The Incidence of Japanese Encephalitis in Taiwan—A Population-Based Study

Background

A mass Japanese encephalitis (JE) vaccination program targeting children was launched in Taiwan in 1968, and the number of pediatric JE cases substantially decreased thereafter. The aim of this study was to elucidate the long-term trend of JE incidence, and to investigate the age-specific seroprevalence of JE-neutralizing antibodies.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A total of 2,948 laboratory-confirmed JE cases that occurred between 1966 and 2012 were analyzed using a mandatory notification system managed by the Centers for Disease Control, Taiwan. A total of 6,594 randomly-sampled serum specimens obtained in a nationwide population-based survey in 2002 were analyzed to estimate the seroprevalence of JE-neutralizing antibodies in the general population. The average annual JE incidence rate of the group aged 30 years and older was 0.167 cases per 100,000 people between 2001 and 2012, which was higher than the 0.052 cases per 100,000 people among those aged under 30 years. These seroepidemiological findings indicate that the cohort born between 1963 and 1975, who generally received two or three doses of the vaccine and were administered the last booster dose more than 20 years ago, exhibited the lowest positive rate of JE-neutralizing antibodies (54%). The highest and second highest antibody rates were observed, respectively, in the oldest unvaccinated cohort (86%) and in the youngest cohort born between 1981 and 1986, who received four doses 10–15 years ago (74%).

Conclusion/Significance

Over the past decade, the main age group of the confirmed JE cases in Taiwan shifted from young children to adults over 30 years of age. People who were born between 1963 and 1975 exhibited the lowest seroprevalence of JE-neutralizing antibodies. Thus, the key issue for JE control in Taiwan is to reduce adult JE cases through a cost-effective analysis of various immunization strategies.     

A common Chinese β-thalassemia mutation found in a Japanese family

Summary We have identified the substitution of a thymine for a cytosine at nucleotide position 654 in the second intron of the -globin gene that causes -thalassemia in a Japanese family. This mutation was reported to occur rather frequently in patients of Chinese origin, but has rarely been found in other ethnic groups.     

Cumulative culture in nonhumans: overlooked findings from Japanese monkeys?

Cumulative culture, generally known as the increasing complexity or efficiency of cultural behaviors additively transmitted over successive generations, has been emphasized as a hallmark of human evolution. Recently, reviews of candidates for cumulative culture in nonhuman species have claimed that only humans have cumulative culture. Here, we aim to scrutinize this claim, using current criteria for cumulative culture to re-evaluate overlooked qualitative but longitudinal data from a nonhuman primate, the Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata). We review over 60 years of Japanese ethnography of Koshima monkeys, which indicate that food-washing behaviors (e.g., of sweet potato tubers and wheat grains) seem to have increased in complexity and efficiency over time. Our reassessment of the Koshima ethnography is preliminary and nonquantitative, but it raises the possibility that cumulative culture, at least in a simple form, occurs spontaneously and adaptively in other primates and nonhumans in nature.     

Chloroplast and mitochondrial molecular tests identify European×Japanese larch hybrids

Hybrids between European and Japanese larches combine the properties of both parental species (drought resistance, canker resistance, stem straightness) and exhibit a fast growth rate. They are produced in seed orchards, generally by natural pollination. Seeds are collected and used for afforestation as interspecific hybrids. However, there are no convenient tests to assess the interspecific hybrid proportion. In the present study, we developed diagnostic molecular markers suitable for the individual identification of hybrids, whatever their developmental stage. Our strategy involved testing a combination of maternally inherited markers from the mitochondrial genome (mtDNA) and paternally inherited markers from the chloroplast genome (cpDNA). Hybrids were then identified by the presence of a mitochondrial sequence inherited from one parental species and a chloroplast sequence inherited from the other parental species. To achieve this aim, markers discriminating both parental species were first sought. Amplifications of mitochondrial and chloroplast sequences were performed using specific PCR primers. After testing 33 primer pairs in combination with nine restriction enzymes, we detected one mitochondrial marker, f13 which was amplified in Japanese larch and absent in European larch, and one chloroplast marker, ll-TaqI which showed different restriction patterns depending on the species. A restriction fragment of 601 bp was obtained in Japanese larch while two fragments of 120 bp and 481 bp were observed in European larch. These patterns were found in all 197 individuals tested from the two pure species. These markers were then used for the evaluation of the hybrid proportion in a seed lot produced from seed orchards; this was assessed as between 43% and 53% depending on the parental species. The male and female parental species could be determined for each progeny.Communicated by D.B. Neale     

Japanese Encephalitis Virus NS1′ Protein Antagonizes Interferon Beta Production

Japanese encephalitis virus(JEV) is a mosquito-borne virus and the major cause of viral encephalitis in Asia. NS1', a52-amino acid C-terminal extension of NS1, is generated with a-1 programmed ribosomal frameshift and is only present in members of the Japanese encephalitis serogroup of flaviviruses. Previous studies demonstrated that NS1' plays a vital role in virulence, but the mechanism is unclear. In this study, an NS1' defected(rG66A) virus was generated. We found that rG66A virus was less virulent than its parent virus(pSA14) in wild-type mice. However, similar mortality caused by the two viruses was observed in an IFNAR knockout mouse model. Moreover, we found that rG66A virus induced a greater type Ⅰ interferon(IFN) response than that by pSA14, and JEV NS1' significantly inhibited the production of IFN-b and IFN-stimulated genes. Taken together, our results reveal that NS1' plays a vital role in blocking type I IFN production to help JEV evade antiviral immunity and benefit viral replication.     

“Girney” vocalizations among Japanese macaque females: Context and function

One vocalization in the Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata) system of communication is the “girney.” Previous studies indicated that the “girney” is used for short range communication and that it tends to occur when subordinate animals approach and groom dominant ones and when females without infants approach females who have infants. Data were collected on the social behavior of adult female Japanese monkeys of the Arashiyama-A troop in Texas in order to test those results. The study indicates that “girneys” are the most frequently occurring vocalizations of females during and following the birth season and that they occur primarily in two contexts. Those are the proximity of a female to another female with a new infant and the proximity of a lower ranking animal to a higher ranking one. The contexts are ones in which the risk of aggression is high, and the “girneys” appear to function as appeasement gestures to reduce the risk.     

GSM 900 MHz microwave radiation affects embryo development of Japanese quails

A wide range of non thermal biological effects of microwave radiation (MW) was revealed during the last decades. A number of reports showed evident hazardous effects of MW on embryo development in chicken. In this study, we aimed at elucidating the effects of MW emitted by a commercial model of GSM 900 MHz cell phone on embryo development in quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) during both short and prolonged exposure. For that, fresh fertilized eggs were irradiated during the first 38 h or 14 days of incubation by a cell phone in "connecting" mode activated continuously through a computer system. Maximum intensity of incident radiation on the egg's surface was 0.2 μW/cm2.The irradiation led to a significant (p<0.001) increase in numbers of differentiated somites in 38-hour exposed embryos and to a significant (p<0.05) increase in total survival of embryos from exposed eggs after 14 days exposure. We hypothesized that observed facilitating effect was due to enhancement of metabolism in exposed embryos provoked via peroxidation mechanisms. Indeed, a level of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) reactive substances was significantly (p<0.05-0.001) higher in brains and livers of hatchlings from exposed embryos. Thus, observed effects of radiation from commercial GSM 900 MHz cell phone on developing quail embryos signify a possibility for non-thermal impact of MW on embryogenesis. We suggest that the facilitating effect of low doses of irradiation on embryo development can be explained by a hormesis effect induced by reactive oxygen species (ROS). Future studies need to be done to clarify this assumption.